OTTOMAN SULTAN AND PASHAS

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MEHMED VAHIDUDDIN

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BIOGRAPHY

He is the last of the 36 Ottoman Sultans. He was the son of Sultan Abdulmecid, his mother is Gulistu Sultana. He was born on 2^nd February 1861. He lost his parent in his early ages. His father died in the year he was born and his mother has passed away a few years later. As an orphan prince, he was taken care of one of his father�s wives Sayeste.

His older brother Sultan Abdulhamit II took care of Vahiduddin�s education. He always loved and protected his younger brother.

Sultan Vahiduddin was an intelligent and literate man. He usually liked to read the Islamic works. He was exceptionally intelligent, kind and elegant. He used to listen much but speak less. During, his visit of Vienna, everybody had admired his politeness. He used to listen others with a great attention.

When Sultan Mehmed Resat accessed, Yusuf Izzettin the oldest son of Sultan Abdulaziz was his successor. But, Yusuf Izzettin had died and Vahiduddin became the crown prince.

The World War I started when Vahiduddin was a crown prince. During the war, he officially visited Germany. Following the death of Sultan Mehmed Resad he was crowned Sultan with the name Sultan Mehmed Vahiduddin VI.

The TREATY of SEVR (SEURRE)

The Treaty of Seurre was clarified during the San Remo Conferance in May 11, 1920. And it was it was given to the Ottoman Government to be approved.

The Allies attacked Anatolia and Trakya with Greek Army in June 23, 1920; in order to compel the Ottoman Government to accept the Treaty. They invaded the Bursa, Usak and Nazilli. Their aim was to put pressure to the Ottomans in order to hinder their objections.

In 22 July, 1920 the Council of The Ottoman Empire was assembled, the assembly was directed by Sultan Vahiduddin. They have decided that, � It is acceptable to destroy a weak existance�, and ratified the treaty. Tevfik Pasha opposed to sign the treaty which divides the Turkish Territories and destroys the Turkish nobility. Therefore, Resat Halis Bey aand Rıza Tevfik Bey signed the Treaty of Sevres in August 10, 1920.

According to the Sevr (Sevres) Treaty, The Ottoman Territories were dividing in to pieces and Turkish Nation was loosing their right to live independently.

The North-western territories were lined with the Istanbul city. West Anatolia (Izmir province) was left to Greece. South-eastern provinces, Mardin, Urfa, Gaziantep, the Amanos Mountain and northern side of Osmaniye were left to France. From Bayazit, Van, Mus, Bitlis, to Erzincan will left to the independent Armenia. In Iraq and Syria, it was decided to establish an independent Kurdistan. Beside these, the territories left to the Turks would be separated in between the populations, as; Antalya and Konya would be Italian, Adana, Sivas and Malatya would be French, and Northern Iraq would be British. In Istanbul, the Sultan and the government would have been settled, but, Istanbul would have been an international region, the Straits would be controlled by a commission with its own financial resources, its own army and navy. Ankara and Kastamonu were left to the Turkish population but their independence has bounded most strictly. According to the Treaty of Sevres the minorities would be more privileged than the Turks, as they would not pay any tax and they would not do military service. If anybody would leave the Turkish nationality, he/she would be more privileged and never be permitted to take Turkish citizenship again.

The military forces of the government had bounded in to 50.700 soldiers, and tanks, cannons and planes were completely prohibited. Only volunteered soldiers were used. The navy will be established of 7 gunboats and 6 torpids. Submarines were prohibited as well.

The articles about financial and economical issues were more bounding than the military ones. By those articles, The Ottoman Empire turned out to be an Ally colony. According to the treaty, a Finance Commission would be established by English, French and Italian representatives and this commission would be administrate the Ottoman incomes.

After the Ottoman Government signed this treaty, the Turkish Independence Movement had accelerated and the Turkish people lost their faiths in Istanbul and the dynasty completely.

Turkish Parliament established in Ankara, rejected the Treaty of Sevres and in their assembly in August 19, 1920, they declared the Ottoman Dynasty and the Ottoman Council as traitors.

The WAR of INDEPENDENCE

In the World War I The Ottoman Government took place with Germany. The Ottoman Army had defended the territories with bravery, but, they could not have hindered the division of their country. The treaties of Mondros and Sevres brought an inevitable collapse the Ottoman Empire.

Sultan Mehmed Vahiduddin gathered the Ottoman Parliament to approve the unification of the national boundaries ( Misak-i Milli). Regardless of the Allies� consent they have accepted it. Therefore, Britain occupied Istanbul and dissolved the parliament.

The leader of the National Independence Movement Mustafa Kemal Pasha went to Samsun (The Black Sea) in May 19,1919 and with his friends he organised a defence movement all around Anatolia. They assembled congresses and The National Forces (Kuva-yi Milliye)had been established. In April 23, 1920 Turkish Grand Parliament was established in Ankara.

Turkish Nation, has made an Independence War and gloriously they have defeated all their enemies. The National Forces were commanded by a genius, Mustafa Kemal Pasha. After, the enemies were defeated, the Parliament decided to abolish the Ottoman Dynasty and to deport them from the Turkish territories.

DEPARTURE from ISTANBUL

Sultan Mehmed Vahiduddin requested to be transferred to another country from the Ally commander. In a great agony, he abandoned his homeland with an English ship named Malaya in the morning of October 17, 1922.

While, departing the palace, he did not take anything, even he left his own belongings. It is possible to say that, he left his country without a penny. First, he went to the Island of Malta and than to Hicaz. While he was in Hicaz he was offered to be the Caliph by Egypt and Saudi Arabia. He was promised, a wealthy and a luxurious life, in case he would accept to be the Caliph. However, Vahiduddin was a very proud man and he thought that, if he accepts this offer he will reject his predecessors.

After he stayed in Mecca for a while, he went to San Remo, Italy and he lived there until his death. The Italian King whom, Vahiduddin knew since his younger times, had offered him a palace in the city. But, the Sultan refused his offer kindly and clearly; �We are very grateful and thanksgiving to the royal King. I admire his kindness, manliness but, my name �Caliph of the Muslims� not allow me to accept this offer�

Indeed he had very hard days. He never thought about his situation, he asked all the visitors coming from Turkey, the condition of the country.

DEATH of the LAST SULTAN

Sultan Vahiduddin died because of a hearth attack in San Remo, in May 15, 1926. He was 65 years old when he died. He wished to be buried in his homeland. He knew that, this was impossible and he had chosen to be buried in Sam (Damascus) near the tomb of Selahaddin Eyyubi, and this was his last will.

Because of the debts, his creditors sequestrated his corpse. The President of Syria Ahmed Nami heard this and paid all his debts and brought his body to Syria. Even, the Sultan�s death body was so unfortunate, the garden of the tomb of Selahaddin Eyubi was full and there were no place for his tomb, so, the Present buried the Sultan in the Garden of the Sultan Selim Mosque.

MEHMED RESAD (Mohammed Resat)

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Sultan Mehmed Resad was born in November 2, 1844 in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Abdulmecid and his mother is Gulcemal Kadın Efendi who was Caucasian originated. He spent his childhood near his father Sultan Abdulmecid and his education was taken care of him.

During the reign of his uncle Sultan Abdulaziz, Sultan Mehmet Resad lived an undisturbed life, but, in the period of his brother Sultan Abdulhamid II, he was imprisoned to the palace. As he was a crown prince he was always controlled. He spent this life of prison mostly in the Harem by reading books, especially poetry.

Sultan Mehmed Resad acceded the throne at the age of 65 by the support of the Committee of Union and Progress (Ittihat ve Terrakki Partisi). He was not neither included nor interested in the government administrations during Abdulhamid II�s period. During his sultanate, the important members of the the Committee of Union and Progress, Talat Pasha and Enver Pasha had administrated the empire.

The WAR of TRIPOLI

Italy was late for the race of colonisation, while busy with restoring the interior conflicts. But the other European countries were occupying overseas. The Ottoman Empire was loosing power, and Italy was intending to occupy Trablusgarb in Northern Africa. With favour of other European Countries; Italy sent an ultimatum to the Ottoman Empire and commanded them to leave Trablusgarb. However, the Ottoman government rejected to leave this region and Italy occupied Trablusgarp and Bingazi in 1911.

Mustafa Kemal and Enver Bey went to Trablus and organised the Ottoman forces there. But, Italy attacked the Ottomans from the Dardanels and occupied the Twelve Islands. The Balkan Wars were started and an agreement was singed with Italy. According to Usi Peace Treaty, Italy retained Trablusgarb and Bingazi. The Twelve Islands were given to Italy to hinder a Greek attack.

The 1^st BALKAN WAR

After Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece won their liberation, they declared war to the Ottoman Empire to establish a Slav union in the Balkans. Ottoman Empire fourth in many front lines and in many of them the Ottoman army was defeated. The Bulgarian advanced through Catalca, the Greeks invaded Salonica and Albania declared liberation.

The 2^nd BALKAN WAR

The Balkan States began to struggle, for the lands they took from the Ottoman Empire. Serbia and Greece declared war against Romania and Bulgaria. The Ottomans took advantige of this situation and declared war to Bulgaria, the Ottoman Army recapture historical city Edirne and advanced through the River Meric, but, the European Countries intervened and stopped the Ottomans. The Treaty of Istanbul was signed, the Turks retained Edirne and Kirklareli.

The WORLD WAR I

With the Revolution of Industry, in Europe rivalry for marketing had increased. The European countries began to search for new colonies and they established alliances among themselves. This rivalry caused the World War I and the Ottoman Empire entered the war with Germany. The war begun in July 28 1914 and ended in 1918, millions of people died, thousands of people crippled and the world entered a period of economical declined after this war.

The Ottoman Empire fought in many front lines. The Turkish troops defended the country most courageously, Gallipoli is one of the most significant defences in history. But, Sultan Mehmed Resad just prayed for his army and not involved in any struggle, at last he died of a hearth attack in 1918.

ABDULHAMID II (Abdul hamid II)

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Sultan Abdulhamid II was born in Istanbul on the 21^st of September, 1842. His father is Sultan Abdul Medjid and his mother is Tir-i Mujgan Kadin Efendi. His mother is a Circassian originated. He lost his mother as a little child and he was grown by his step mother Pristu Kadın. He was weak child and used to fell sick often, by this reason, he was showed great interest especially during his father�s reign. He was very well educated and learnt to play piano besides his other courses.

Sultan Abdulhamid II lived a free life before he had married. After his marriage, he spent his all spare times with his family. He was inherited an empire which was about to collapse, by his political and social administrations, the empire was saved. He ruled the Ottomans for 33 years.

Abdulhamid was a religious, gracious and a generous man. He lived a life of a common person. During the Greece Campaign, it is informed him that, there was not enough money for a campaign. He spent his personnel wealth for the campaign.

He was also a brilliant carpenter, he used to make marvellous furniture and used to sell them gave that money to the poor. He was a really gracious man, he even forgave many people intended to him.

Sultan Abdul Hamid II had established universities, an Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Finance and Agriculture. Moreover, he openned a many primary schools, high schools, blind and dumb schools.

He had Sisli Etfal Hospital and Poorhouse built with his own money. He had the excellent drinking water called Hamidiye brought to Istanbul. He extended highways until the internal parts of Anatolia and had railways spread through Baghdad and Medina. He had rider trolley roads spread in capital cities.

1^stCONSTITUTION PERIOD

The notables of Committee of Union and Progress (Ittihak ve Terrakki Cemiyeti) dethroned Sultan Abdulaziz under cover of the disorder in the Balkans and acssesed Sultan Murad V to the throne. After a short period, Sultan Murad V had left the throne because of his illness and Sultan Abdulhamid II was crowned.

Due to the relations with Europe, an intellectual group was emerged in the Ottoman Empire. Committee of Union and Progress was the voice of this intellectual group. They believed that the salvation of the empire is in Constitution. Abdulhamid had promised that, he will declare the Constitution before he was accessed. He kept his promise and in December, 23 1876 he declared the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire �The Main Laws� (Kanun-i Esasi).

The Period Constitution was not last so long. Because Mithat Pasha (Grand Vizier) was intending to restrict the Sultan�s authority. Abdulhamid hold Mithat Pasha responsible of the death of Sultan Abdulaziz and dismissed him. Mithat Pasha was exiled. Because of the Ottoman-Russian War, the members of the parliament had began to struggle with each other and they had not been working properly, the Sultan decided to dismiss the parliament as well and he had put an end to the Period Constitution.

1877 - 1878 The OTTOMAN - RUSSIAN WAR (93 WAR)

With the Treaty of Paris, the tension between the Ottomans and the Russians had been yielded. But Russia was not pleased with this condition. The neutralisation of the Black Sea had hindered Russia�s advantages. Moreover, Russia had been spreading the Pan-Slavist movement in the Balkans and the Black Sea. As a result of Russian propaganda, revolts had been risen in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, and Bulgaria. The Europeans had assembled a Conference by fear of a new war, the Ottomans declared the Constitution while the Conference was continuing. In this conference, autonomy of Bosnia-Herzegovina was decided. They wanted the Ottoman Army to leave Serbia. The Ottoman Government rejected this conference, and the Europeans assembled another conference in London but they could not have been accepted the Ottomans these articles. They could not have hinder another war in the Balkans.

The War had begun, by the Russian attack. They passed through the River Tuna and came to the Ottoman lands. They also marched through the Eastern Anatolia and captured, Kars and Ardahan, but, in Erzurum they were defeated by Ghazi Ahmed Muhtar Pasha. In the Western parts of the Ottoman territory had been defended by the Ottoman Army led by legendary commander Ghazi Osman Pasha, unfortunately the war took so long and he could not have taken the aid from Istanbul and he could not have been resist anymore. The Russians captured Plevne and Sapka. By capturing this region they opened a passage through Edirne. When the Russian Army had began to marched through Anatolia, the Ottoman Government had asked for peace.

The DISSOLUTION of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE

After the Treaty of Berlin, the Ottoman Empire has entered the duration of dissolution. With the independence of the nations in the Balkans and the treaties signed after the Russian War the Empire began to loose power. Britain invaded Cyprus to hinder Russia�s policies about spreading through the Mediterranean Coast. The Ottoman Government temporarily had left Cyprus to Britain.

France has settled on Algeria and began to make plans on Tunisia. By the Treaty of Berlin France has gained the opportunity to dominate Tunisia. The Ottomans rejected French domination in Tunisia but they could not have been successful. After, French invasion in Tunisia, Britain got into action.

With the opening of the Suez Channel in 1839, Egypt�s geopolitical importance had increased. Britain and France became rivals on Egypt. Hidivi Ismail Pasha was failed to rule Egypt and economical problems had occurred, the European merchants began to attack the shops. These economical conflicts was threatening social peace there. Britain benefited from this chaotic condition and invaded Egypt (1882).

After, Greece became an independent state, the Greeks in the island of Kyrete had revolted in order to be occupied with it. The Ottomans stopped this revolt. But, Greece sent an army to the island and the Ottoman Government had declared war against Greece. The war was made in Teselya region and the Ottoman Army commanded by Ghazi Ethem Pasha defeated the Greeks in 1897. With reconciliation of the European countries a treaty was signed. With this treaty the island was given autonomy and in 1908 Greece invaded the island again. After the wars of Balkan, the Ottomans had completely lost the island.

The domination of Bosnia-Herzegovina was given temporally to Austria by the Treaty of Berlin. Austria invaded this region, after Sultan Abdulhamit declared the Second Constitution. There were internal conflicts going on and The Ottomans had to have accept the Austrian domination in Bosnia except the Yeni Pazar County 1908.

With the Treaty of Berlin, Bulgaria became a Princedom and divided into three regions. The East Roumelia and Macedonia were left to the Ottomans conditionally, and the condition was; a governmental restoration in these two regions. In the East Roumelia revolts had began in 1885 and Bulgaria declared that it has occupied the region. After the declaration of the Second Constitution, Bulgaria became independent and a Bulgarian Kingdom was established in 1908.

The DISSOLUTION of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE

31 MARCH EVENT

After the declaration of the Second Constitution some conflicts and struggles had been occurred between different groups. The opponents of the Constitution had co-operated with the hunter troops in Istanbul and revolted. The Action Army had arrived from Salonica and ended the revolt. This revolt was called as the 31 March Event, after this event Committee of Union and Progress gained power and Sultan Abdulhamid was dethroned, Sultan Mehmed Resad replaced him.

31 MARCH EVENT

MURAD V (Amurath V)

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Sultan Murad V was born in 21.09.1840, in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Abdulmecid and his mother is Sevk-Efza Sultana who was Caucasian originated. Sultan Murad V was very well educated, he learnt French. He ordered books from France and read them most of the time. He was vey much interested in literature. He favoured famous writers of the time Ziya Pasha and Namik Kemal. He was very much influenced by Western culture, he played piano and he composed music in European style.

Sultan Murad V went to Europe with Sultan Abdulziz I. During this visit he admired Europe and he became friend with the Prince of Wales Edward (later he was crowned king as Edward VII). Sultan Murad V a very greedy and a very extravagant man.

Murad V, succeeded the throne following the dethroning of Sultan Abdulaziz in August 31 1904. However, he disappointed his supporters with his indifference towards the problems of the country. He reigned for 93 days. He dethroned on 31^st of August 1876, he lived in the palace for 28 years more and died on 29^th August 1904 and he was buried near his mother�s tomb in Yeni Mosque.

ABDULAZIZ (Abdul aziz)

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Sultan Adulaziz I was born in 8^th of February in 1830, in Istanbul. He is the son of Sultan Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Mother Sultana. Abdulaziz had a auburn complexion. He acceded the throne after his brother Sultan Abdulmecid I�s death, in 25^th of June in 1861, he was 31 years old. Although he had reputation of his extravagancy he dressed up very simply. He was in his 9^th year when his father had passed away. His brother, Sultan Abdulmecid I had taken care of his education. He learnt French, he was fond of music and poetry, he was a composer himself. He was a talented painter as well. He designed ships for the navy. He was a brilliant archer, hunter and a wrestler. He was physically strong and muscular.

REVOLT of KARADAG

Karadag in the Balkans revolted against the Ottoman authority. Commander Omer Pasha repressed this revolt. In 8^th of September, 1862 Istanbul Protocol was signed with the insists of France and Russia. With this protocol Belgrade was retained by the Ottomans but its province was given to Serbia.

JOURNEY to EGYPT

Sultan Abdulaziz I decided to go to Egypt and departed from Istanbul in April 3, 1863 with a ship named �Feyz-i Cihan�. His nephews Murat, Abdulhamid, Mehmed Resad accompanied him. He was the first Ottoman Sultan went to Egypt since Sultan Selim I. The people of Egypt celebrated the arrival of sultan.

Abdulaziz renovated the regulations about Egypt, from then on the governors of Egypt were begun to be called as �Hidiv�.

ROMANIA CONFLICT

According to the Treaty of Paris, Wallachia and Moldovia had accepted the superiority of the Ottoman Empire but they were free in their internal administrations. In 1862, in Bucharest the councils of two federations were united and they established Romania. The Council voted �no confidence� for the Prince of Romania and the problems increased. In 1866, Charles was declared the Prince.

KYRETE CONFLICT

The problems in island of Kyrete were began in the 18^th century and continued in 19^th century. The Greek habitants of the island were revolted in the 19^th century. The Ottoman Empire tried to solve the problem, but all the military and administrative solutions were failed. The Greeks rejected the Ottoman authority in the island they desired to be annexed to Greece (02.09.1866).

Grand Vizier Mehmed Emin Ali Pasha was sent to Kyrete, and in 6^th of October in 1867, he declared a firman about the islands new administrative system. The civil administration was given to a governor appointed by the Sultan. For the military issues, the Ottoman commander was attended, two assistants were appointed to the governor, one is Muslim, the other is Christian. Except, the custom dues the island was immune from all the taxes. Both Turkish and Greek would be the legal language of the island. A mixed council would have been administrate agricultural, financial, commercial and industrial issues.

The LOSS of BELGRADE

Following the Treaty of Paris, Serb enmity had risen and they begun to fight with the Muslim habitants in Belgrade. Due to the agreement signed in 1862, the castle was under Ottoman rule, and the Serbs took the castles of Sokod and Owitza. Serbs were favoured by the Europeans and they wanted to take the castle of Belgrade. The Ottoman government was not ready for a war and gave the castle to Serbs in the 10^th of April, 1867.

The LOSS of BELGRADE

The REVOLTS BOSNIA - HERZEGOVINA and BULGARIA

In 1875, a revolt was begun in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the European countries interfered and they pressured the Ottoman Government to reform the administrative system of the region. He reform packet was designed but postponed with Bulgarian revolt. The Europeans supported the Bulgarian revolt but they could not have confined in each other and the conflicts remained unsolved.

The REFORMS of SULTAN ABDULAZIZ

Sultan Abdulaziz followed the reform movements begun in the period of Sultan Abdulmecid I. He organised a new administrative system for the Ottoman provinces. The Kadilik Kurumu (Judges of Islam) was put under control. On 1^st of April, 1868 Sura-yi Devlet (Council of State), in 1870, Divan-i Muhasebat (Exchequer and Audit Department) were established. Moreover, education, transportation and financial issues were organised.

Sultan Abdulaziz modernised the Navy too. In 1875, in the Ottoman Navy, there were 21 battleships and 173 non-armoured ships. The naval forces had been emerged by, 50.000.000 marines, 700 officers, 173 higher ranked officers, 11 vice-admirals, 6 cor-admirals, and 3 admirals. In this manner the Ottoman Navy was the third navy of the world after, English and French navies.

Sultan Abdulaziz I reigned for 14 years, 11 months and five days. In the first years of his sultanate he supported the constitutional government but later his ideas were changed and he used force against the constitutional government sympathisers. At first, he sympathised the reformist writers and poets as Sinasi, Namik Kemal and Ziya Pasha but in the following years he exiled Namik Kemal to Cyprus. The supporters of a constitutional government effected the public opinion, Mithat Pasha incited the university students and they protest against the Sultan 0n 10^th of May, 1876. In May, 30 Huseyin Avni Pasha and his soldiers raided the palace and dethroned the Sultan.

Four days after his dethroning, Sultan Abdulaziz had died. Although, it was said that he committed suicide by cutting his wrists, there are evidences about a possible murder (04.06.1876).

ARCHITECTURE

As all the Ottoman sultans, Abdulaziz was fond monumental architecture. He had had built Harbiye (the War Academy) before his journey to Egypt. Aksaray Valide Mosque, Sadabad Mosque, Aziziye Mosque, Palace of Beylerbeyi and Cıragan Mosque were built in his period.

ABDULMECID I (Abdul mecid I)

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Sultan Abdülmecid was born in 25^th day of April, 1823. He is the son of Sultan Mahmud II and Bezm-i Alem Mother Sultana. Bezm-i Alem Sultana was Georgian originated. Abdulmecid, followed his fathers footsteps, he admired the western civilisation, and like his father he was a reformist. In his 17^th year, he succeeded his father Sultan Mahmud II, and, on the fourth month of his sovereign he declared the Reform Firman (Tanzimat Fermani), in Gulhane Park, Istanbul. He is known as the Sultan of the Reform Period. European historians and writers appreciate his reforms as well as his character.

Sultan Abdulmecid I was a fair and graicous sovereign, but, he used to have drinking alcohol since his youth. He died at the age of 39, because of tuberculosis. He was buried near the tomb of Sultan Selim III.

When Sultan Mahmud II was in his dead bed, Kavalali Mehmet Ali Pasha (Governor of Egypt) had revolted and defeated the Ottoman Forces in Nizip. Abdulmecid was acceded under such a chaotic condition. Egypt appeared as an European conflict with the Russian Navy�s arrival to Istanbul due to the Treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi.

England, Austria, Prussia and Russia assembled a conference to solve the problem between Kavalali and the Ottoman Empire. The European countries were against a strong administration in Egypt and they favoured the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of London was signed in 1840. Due to this treaty; Egypt remained in the Ottoman authority, but, Kavalali Pasha and his sons took the administration. Egypt was imposed to pay 80.000 gold annual tax. Syria, Adana, Kyrite were left to the Ottoman Empire.

Another conference assembled in 1841 after the treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi had fallen due. France, England, Prussia and Austria joined to this conference and, the domination of the Straits was given to the Ottoman Empire, also, other countries� battleships� transit in the periods of peace was forbidden. With this conference; France and England ensured their safety in the Straits but, the Ottoman authority was declined.

TANZIMAT FERMANI (The REFORM FERMAN)

The Ottoman reform movements led by Sultan Mahmud II and appeared in cultural and social lives of the Empire; had been strongly influenced by the European reforms.

Sultan Abdulmecid appreciated his fathers� reformist character and as soon as he came to throne he designed a widespread reform movement. He appointed Mustafa Resit Pasha (Ottoman Ambassador in London) as the Minister of International Relations. Mustafa Resit Pasha was very well educated and he was highly aware of the European politics.

Mustafa Resit Pasha represented the Reform Firman in the Gulhane Park, to the representatives of the European countries, to the statesman and to public (08.11.1839). According to the firman;

The Ottoman Government had guaranteed the safety of the lives and the properties of both Muslim and Non-Muslim subjects.
The taxes would have been regulated according to the annual incomes.
The military services of the Ottoman subjects were re-organised.
Executions without a court decision were strictly forbidden.
Everybody has gained a right for inheritance.
Bribery was forbidden.
Law was regarded as the superior of all powers.

The Reform Firman can be considered as the draft of first Ottoman Constitution. Even the Sultan had accepted a power higher than himself. The minorities were given rights to hinder the European interference in internal issues, but they have found a chance to involve more in the Empire�s domestic administrations.

The WAR of CRIMEA

The Reform Firman did not effected the Empire as planned but it became very effective on Europe. Meanwhile, Russia was advancing through the River Tuna and intending to end the Ottoman domination in the Balkans. Besides, Russia was planning to divide these lands among the Europeans and desiring to dominate all the Orthodox people in the region. But, England and France rejected Russia�s plan and favoured the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman forces supported by England and France defeated the Russian Army in 1855 and invaded Sivastopol.

Char Nikolai I, committed suicide after this withdrawal and Alexander II succeeded him. In 1886, the Treaty of Paris was signed and the Ottoman Empire was considered as an European country and put under the protection of the other European countries. The Black Sea was neutralised and both Russia and the Ottoman Empire left the lands they were invaded.

ISLAHAT FERMANI (The IMPROVMENT FERMAN)

The Improvement Firman was not only designed to organise the interior issues of the Ottoman Empire but also to hinder European and Russian interference in the internal regulations.

It was declared just before the Paris Conference, in Istanbul to the foreign representatives. Important articles of the firman as below;

Religious freedom will be obtained.
New councils will be established in the Patriarchate and the decisions of these councils will be approved by the Ottoman Government.
All the subjects will be equal in the government offices, schools and in military service.
The taxes will be equally imposed.
Foreigners will be free to buy estates in the Ottoman territories.

Sultan Abdulmecid I had passed away in his 38^th year. He was the first Ottoman Sultan who had an European education. He tried to reform and restore all the regulations of the empire. He gave permission to the newspapers and to the birth of new ideas.

ARCHITECTURE

In Abdulmecid I�s period; Kucuk Mecidiye Camii (Small Mecidiye Mosque) in Besiktas, Fatih Hirka-i Serif Mosque, Dolmabahce Mosque, Ortakoy Mosque, Kucuksu Palace, and Mecidiye Palace were built.

MAHMUD II (Mahmoud II)

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Sultan Mahmoud II was born in Istanbul in July 20, 1785. His father was Sultan Abdulhamid I and his mother was Naksidil Sultana.

Mahmoud came to the throne in 1808, in his twenty fourth year. While heir presumptive, he had been carefully instructed by Sultan Selim III in those measures of reform necessary to save the empire from dissolution. Mahmoud was qualified by an extraordinary energy. As an intellectual and intelligent young individual he followed closely the reforms in Europe. He especially, reformed the judicial system. He restored and modified many regulations.

He died from tuberculosis in July, 1 1839, at the age of 54. His funeral was so crowded, and he was buried in Divan Yolu.

His sons : Abdulmecid, Abdulaziz, four shahzadahs called Ahmed, Bayezid, Abdulhamit, Soliman, Mohamed, Murad, Nizameddin, Mehmed Abdullah, Othman.

His Daughters: Emine Sultan, Hamide Sultan, Hayriye Sultan, Shah Sultan, Salihe Sultan, Ayse Sultan, Atike Sultan, Fatma Sultan, Munire Sultan, Fatma Sultan, Fihrimah Sultan, Adile Sultan.

OTTOMAN - RUSSO RELATIONS

When Mahmoud has ascended the Ottoman-Russian War was continuing. Due to the treaty signed with Britain in 1809, the war continued until French-Russian conflicts had been occurred.

In September 28, 1812 a peace treaty was signed between The Ottoman Empire and Russia in Bucharest. With this treaty Russia left Wallachia and Moldavia, they just took the region of Baserabia. Serbia became an autonomy. Bosnia and Wallachia were freed from taxes for two years. River Tuna was given both Russia and the Ottoman Empire and it was regarded as the border line of two countries.

The REVOLT of SERBIA

Serbia was invaded by Mehmet the conqueror, and the Serbs were pleasantly living as Ottoman subjects. Incitements of Russia and Austria, the decline of the Ottoman authority in the 17^th century, ill-treatment of the Yeniceris (Ottoman Soldiers) and the nationalist movements following the French Revolution caused the Revolt of Serbia. The revolt was started in 1804 and led by George Petrowitsch (commonly known as Dark George). The Ottoman Army was in war with Russia and the revolt had continued until 1812. With the Treaty of Bucharest some rights were given to Serbs.

As the Serbs adhered to the ritual of the Greek Church, the sympathies of Russia favoured their national movement; and finally Serbia was constituted a sovereign state (1828-29 The Treaty of Edirne), electing its own prince and managing its internal affairs but acknowledging the supremacy of the sultan, and submitting its external relations to his control. The first prince was Milosch Obrenovitch, the successful leader of the second rebellion.

The NAVARINO EVENT

The southern part of European Turkey, comprehending the Morea and Greece in general, imitated the example of Serbia. Moreover, The French Revolution had an important influence on the Ottoman subjects. The Greeks received the sympathy of the whole Europe and Russia.

The Hellenic Revolution began, as revolutions often begin with a secret society. An association of Greeks, styling itself Hetaria Philike, or Society of Friends, had for some years existed in the dominions of Russia and Austria. Their aim was liberation of their country and the rebirth of the Byzantine Empire.

The first insurrectionary movement was made in the Danubian provinces in March, 1821, by Alexander Ipsalanti, a Greek military officer in the Russian service, but the attempt was speedily repressed.

The second rebellion was made in Morea, this was a long and sanguinary struggle. Mehmed Ali Pasha of Kavala had been promised to be the governor of the region and he was sent to the region to repress the riot. He sent an army and a powerful navy, commanded by his own son Ibrahim Pasha toward the Greeks and they had defeated the rebels. The withdrawal of the Greek liberation movement, depressed the European countries. Morea and the island of Kyrete were given to Mehmet Ali Pasha, this was out of Britain�s benefits, as Britain was planning to establish a puppet Greek State in that strategical region.

England, Russia and France made a treaty among themselves and decided to give liberation to Greece. Sultan Mahmoud rejected this and the Ottoman Navy anchored to the Navarino Harbour in Morea was burnt by them.

The TREATY of EDIRNE

After, the Ottoman Navy was burnt by the Event of Navarino Sultan Mahmoud II requested war compensation. Russia rejected this request and declared war against the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, Sultan Mahmoud had abolished Yeniceris (Ottoman Army) and established a new army called �Asakiri Mansuri Muhammediye�. This army was not ready to fight against the strong Russian Army, as its establishment has not been completed. Russia invaded Wallacia and Moldovia and marched through the River Tuna. In the west, they passed through the Balkans and reached Edirne, in the east, they came to Erzurum. By the inevitable, advance of the Russian Army, the Ottoman Government surrendered and a treaty was signed between two countries. According to this treaty, Greece had gained liberty, Wallachia, Moldovia and Serbia gained many privileges. Russia had left the regions, it had invaded. The Ottoman government gave permission to the Russian trading ships for their transits through the straits. Moreover, the Ottoman Government had accepted to pay Russia war compensation.

The REVOLT of MEHMED ALI PASHA CAVALLA

Another storm speedily gathered upon the Ottoman Empire excited by Mehmet Ali, the pasha of Egypt. He was born in Cavalla, the Ancient Neapolis, in Roumelia and he was commonly called as Mehmet Ali Pasha of Cavalla. This powerful vassal had held the government of that country through the entire reign, and had hitherto served the Sultan Mahmoud faithfully, rendering him important assistance during the contest with Greeks. His career was remarkable for its almost uniform success, till ambition brought him into collision with his liege lord and the European powers.

French invasion of Egypt led him to the scene of his future distinction. He volunteered to defend Egypt from Napoleon�s invasion and his successful defend led him to be the governor Pasha of the region. He abolished the Kolemen State in Egypt, he established a very powerful army and a navy by the assistance of French he reformed the Egyptian agriculture by opening water channels.

The Pasha, assisted Sultan Mahmoud in the revolt of Morea and he wanted to be the Governor of Morea and Kyrete. Although he repressed the revolt of Morea, he did not send his army during the Ottoman-Russian War. He requested to be the governor of Syria and due to the Sultan�s rejection of his request, he invaded Syria. He passed the Taurus Mountains and defeated the Ottoman Army in Konya and Adana (Mediterranean Region)

After these victories, it was nearly impossible to stop him through Istanbul. Sultan Mahmoud, asked for Russian co-operation, but, Britain and France with the panic of the possibility of an Ottoman-Russian agreement, convinced Mehmet Ali Pasha to sign an agreement with the Ottoman Government. This agreement was signed in Kutahya and Pasha was appointed to be the Governor of Morea, Kyrete and Syria. Beside, his son Ibrahim Pasha became the governor of Cidde and Adana.

A strong ruler in Egypt was out of Britain�s benefits as Mehmet Ali Pasha was hindering British Trade in the region. The British had decided to dismiss the Pasha and provoke Sultan Mahmoud against him. The Ottoman navy had attacted Pasha�s forces but they were defeated and the Ottoman Admiral (Kaptan-ı Derya) gave the navy to the Pasha (1839). By this domestic war, the Ottoman Navy was completely lost, the army was seriously injured. During these events, Sultan Mahmoud had passed away and his son Abdulmejid was crowned.

The STRAITS

Sultan Mahmoud II was signed a agreement with Russia in 1833, as he co-ordinated with them during the revolt of Mehmet Ali Pasha; this agreement was called Hunkar Iskelesi Agreement (The Sultan�s Stairs);

1. Both the Ottoman Empire and Russia will co-ordinate each other in case of a war.

2. In danger of a war, Russia will sent army to the Ottoman Empire.

3. If an attack occurs against Russia, the Ottoman Empire will close the Straits and hinder an attack from the Straits.

4. This agreement will be valid for eight years.

The REFORMS

As Sultan Mahmoud II was carefully instructed by Sultan Selim III, he was strongly influenced by him. Mahmoud was aware of the fact that the Ottoman Empire needed a widespread reformation. From the first years of his reign Mahmoud attended tremendous reverses in military and administrative systems. In October, 14, 1808 he established a new military organisation called Sekban-i Cedid (New Soldiers), but, the Yeniceris started a riot and protested this new organisation as their privileges were retrenching. The Sultan had abolished the Sekban-i Cedid.

The Sultan had established another military force called Eskinci, but the Yeniceris had revolted again, and, the Sultan had abolished the Yeniceris in June 15, 1826 and established completely new military force called Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye(Restored form of the Yeniceris) this event is called as the Vaka-i Hayriye (The Blessing Event).

Sultan Mahmoud was believing that the governors and the administrators around the country should support the reforms and Grand Vizier Mustafa Pasha signed an agreement with all the officers, this agreement was called Sened-i Ittifak (Proof of Agreement). According to Sened-i Ittifak, the rights of the governors legalised by the Sultan, but all the governors had accepted Sultan�s supremacy and authority and they promised to apply all the reforms in their regions. However, it was impossible for the Sultan to share his authority with other administrators. After a while the Sultan had taken back the administrators privileges back and tried to rule the country from the centre.

Sultan Mahmoud II was aware of the fact that, military reforms were not enough to save the Empire, he abolished the Divan and established the ministries. In March 30, 1836 he modified the term Grand Vizier to �Prime Minister�.

He made many social reforms too. He issued a firman in March 3 1829, about clothing, pantaloons and frockcoats were substituted and the �fez� took place of the turbans. The first newspaper was pressed in November 1, 1839 and called Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Events). New schools and universities were established instead of the old fashioned medreses (Ottoman Schools). Many students were sent to Europe for education.

The first postal service was established. In order to help the Turkish merchants and support their rivalry with the Europeans, duty taxes were decreased. First, census was made, and according to this census it is known that there were 2.500.000 male subjects in Anatolia and 1.500.000 male subject in Roumelia.

New regulations about travelling were applied. For domestic travels people had to take �travel permission�, the one�s travelling abroad should had have passports.

ARCHITECTURE

Architecture received special attention from Sultan Mahmoud II. He erected spacious barracks and arsenals beyond the limits of the capital, numerous mosques in the city, and many residences for himself on the shores of Bosphorus. Some of them are; Suleymaniye Mosque in Rhodes, Bıyıkoglu Mahmud Mosque in Izmir, Cevri Kalfa School (Cevri Kalfa saved the Sultan�s life once, therefore his name was given to this school), Nusretiye Mosque, Istanbul KocaMustafa Pasha Mosque, Stone Barracks.

Sultan Mahmud also had had all the grand mosques repaired and restored. He was a poet and composer, he also was a brilliant calligrapher.

MUSTAFA IV (Mustapha IV)

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Sultan Mustafa IV was born in 08 09 1779, in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Abdulhamid I and his mother is Nuketseza Sultana. His mother was taken care of his education, but Mustafa was a greedy, cunning and a nervous man and he preferred to live a life of pleasure rather than to be educated.

He succeeded his uncle Sultan Selim III dethroned in the revolt of Kabakcı Mustafa. He came to throne in his 28^th year, in 29 May 1807. Mustafa was Sultan Selim III�s favourite crown prince, but he deceived his uncle and co-operated with the rebels and took his throne.

When he was came to throne, the authority of the empire was declining, supporters of Sultan Selim III and Nizam-i Cedid have been caught and executed. Rebellious Kabakci Mustafa and his men were intervening the governmental administrations.

After, the revolt of Kabakci Mustafa the Yeniceris gained power again, they were given many privileges.

ALEMDAR MUSTAFA PASHA

Alemdar Mustafa Pasha and his supporters were planing to ascend Sultan Selim III again. They organised an army consisted of 16.000.000 soldiers, Alemdar Pasha sent Haci Ali Aga to Istanbul and killed Kabakci Mustafa (09 07 1808). Alemdar Pasha arrived Istanbul with his army and killed many rebels, he made Arif Efendi the Minister of Islamic issues and Arif Efendi went to Sultan Mustafa and said Sultan Selim III should ascend the throne again, Sultan Mustafa rejected Arif Efendi and commanded the death of Sultan Selim III and his brother Mahmud. Sultan Selim III was immideately killed but Mahmud had escaped. Alemdar Pasha dethroned Mustafa IV and Sultan Mahmud II replaced him.

Sultan Mustafa IV was executed in November 18 1808.

Mustafa was fond of calligraphy.

SELIM III (Selim III)

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Sultan Selim III was born in Istanbul, on 24^th December 1761. He is the son of Sultan Mustafa III and Mihrisah Sultana. His mother is Georgian originated. His father Sultan Mustafa III was very influenced by the oracles and as they told his son Selim will a world-conqueror he organised a feast lasted seven days with great joy. Selim was grown with the joy of the day he was born. He was very well educated in the palace. Sultan Mustafa III bequeathed him as his successor. But, Selim�s uncle Abdulhamid I ascended the throne after Sultan Mustafa. Sultan Abdulhamid I had taken care of Selim and put great emphasis on his education. After Abdulhamid�s death Selim succeeded him on 7^th April 1789, in his 28^th year.

Sultan Selim III was very fond of literature and calligraphy; many of his works were put on the walls of mosques and convents. He had spoken Arabic and Persian fluently. He was very religious, and very patriotic. He was a talented poet and a brilliant musician. He was a composer as well. He was also very fond of fine arts.

Selim was a very modern man and a reformist ruler. He was planning to modernise the Ottoman Empire. When he was acceded, his people revealed their respect to him and they were very hopeful about his administrations. The Ottoman people hoped that this young modern sultan would have brought back the victorious days of the empire.

Selim III left the throne to Mustafa on 29^th May 1807 and he died a year 2 months later. The men of the new sultan during Alemdar Pasha Events killed him. His was buried in Laleli Mosque near his father�s tomb.

ACTUAL

Selim III was very fond of literature and poetry. He wrote many poems, especially, he wrote very effective verses about Crimea�s occupation by the Russian.

The OTTOMAN-RUSSIAN WARS

When Selim III ascended the throne the Ottoman Empire was in war with Russia and Austria. He continued to struggle with these two states. The basic reason of this war was to save Crimea and hinder Austria planning to divide the Ottoman territories. Crimea�s geopolitical condition was very significant for the safety of Istanbul. During these wars, Ismail Triumph was won against Austria but Russia defeated the Ottoman Army nearly in every front. In Foksan (1^st August 1789) and in Boze (22^nd September 1789) wars the Ottoman Army was defeated. With these victories Russia invaded the Castle of Akkerman and Baserebya Region. On the other hand, the Austrians invaded Sebes, Muhadiye, Lazarethane and Pancova, afterwards, they occupied Belgrade and Semendire.

The OTTOMAN-RUSSIAN WARS

YAS AGREEMENT

With Zistovi Treaty Austria left Russia alone in the war. One year later, Russia requested peace as well. Yas Agreement was signed between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (1792). With this treaty the Ottoman government approved Crimea�s transfer to Russia. The region between the rivers Bug and Dinyester and the castle of Ozi were left to Russia. The Regression Period started with Karlofca Treaty was ended and decay and destruction period of the Ottoman Empire begun.

ZISTOVI PEACE TREATY

As the war continued the political administrations were held. On 11^th July 1789, between the Ottoman Empire and Sweden a protocol was signed. Sultan Selim III also signed a treaty with Prussian King whom saw Russia and Austria as a threat (31^st January 1790). However, these acts did not become valid as Austria was forced to sign a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire as a result of her internal conflicts (4^th August 1791). Austria gave the land she invaded during the wars back. A small land located between the Orsova and Unna streams was given to Austria. Most importantly, Austria guaranteed that she never support Russia again.

NIZAM-I CEDID

Sultan Selim was accusing the Yeniceri Corps after the defeat against Russia. He followed closely the improvements in the European Armies, and he observed the Prussian Army�s educational system. He was aware of the fact that the Ottoman Army needed an immediate reform. He collected new soldiers for the Yeniceri Corps. Thus, he established a modern army called Nizam-i Cedid (24.02.1793).

He established a new treasury called Irad-i Cedid to cover the expenses of this new army. He commissioned European soldiers for the training of the modern Ottoman Army. He constructed Selimiye Barracks and restored Land and Sea Gunnery Schools. After the Yas Agreement, he focused on improvement movements. He sent permanent ambassadors to Paris, London, Vienna, and Berlin and opened embassies in these cities. French was approved as the legal foreign language of the empire. Foreign language and science education gained importance. Some technical works were translated into Turkish.

EGYPT and FRANCE

The Ottoman-French relations were begun in 16^th century and developed during the Tulip Period. France supported Ottoman Empire against Venice and Austria. Mahmud II extended Suleyman I�s capitulation. But, this close relationship was ruined in the 18^th century.

After 1789 revolution, France became a republic. The other European countries saw this as a danger and declared war against France. However, they failed to defeat France in these wars. The French Army commanded by Napoleon defeated nearly all their enemies except United Kingdom. France was intending to keep away the British from the Mediterranean and dominate the trade roads through India. For this reason, Napoleon made an expedition to Egypt and occupied Alexandria (2^nd July 1798). After Alexandria, Cairo was invaded and the Ottoman Empire declared war against France on 2^nd of September in year 1798. The Ottoman Army commanded by Cezzar Ahmed Pasha defeated Napoleon on 18^th March 1799. Napoleon escaped to France and the French Army withdrew from Egypt on 27^th June 1801. El-Arish Treaty was signed between two sides on 25^th June 1802. The Ottoman Empire took Egypt back.

THE LAST YEARS

The Ottoman-Russian relations were improved following the treaties signed. However, the Russians followed their extension policies. The Ottoman Empire in order to hinder the Russian pressure in the Balkans closed the straits to the Russian ships. Moreover, the Princes of Wallachia and Moldavia were changed. But, these decisions could not have been applied with French and British pressure.

The REVOLT of the KABAKCI MUSTAFA

Selim III was probably the most modern sultan of the Ottomans. His army Nizam-i Cedid reveals his attitude about the reformation of the empire. However, many statesmen and soldiers were planing to abolish the Nizam-i Cedid by inciting the yeniceris.

Opponents of Nizam-i Cedid led by Kabakci Mustafa revolted and killed Raif Mahmud. The Ottoman Government decided to make assembly and decide their policy about this revolt. But Grand Vizier Kose Musa Pasha claimed that the revolt was an insignificant event. Consequently, the rebels gained power.

Sultan Selim III as being so late for the repression of the revolt had to have abolished the new corps. But, the rebels continued their actions and wanted to depose the sultan and his 11 statesmen. Eventually, Sultan Selim said, �it is better to leave the Caliphate rather than to be the Caliph of such a rebellious nation� and left the throne (29^th May 1807).

Selim lived in palace for one more year, and died during Alemdar Mustafa Pasha�s revolt to enthrone him again. Although his reform movements were interrupted he succeeded to base a modern state. He introduced a modern military system and he established technical schools.

ARCHITECTURE

In Selim�s period, Istanbul Selimiye Mosque, Halich Artillery and Engineer Barracks, Ishakchi and Uskudar Warehouses were built. He had had restored Eyup Sultan Mosque and built silver gates. Beside, he renovated some parts of Mevlana Tomb in Konya.

Some other monuments erected in Selim�s period are: Soma Hizir Mosque, Yozgat Cevahir Ali Efendi Mosque, Burs Emir Sultan Mosque, Izmit Hisar Bey Mosque

ABDULHAMID I (Abdul hamid I)

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Sultan Abdulhamid I was born in 20th of March, 1725, in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Ahmed III and his mother is Rabia Semi Sultana. His mother had taken care of his education. He studied history. He learnt calligraphy. He was a gracious and religious ruler. He traced a reform policy. He followed the governmental administrations closely. He worked with brilliant statesmen.

When he came to throne, the army asked for gratuity, and the sultan claimed that; �there is no longer, gratuities in our treasury, all of our soldier sons should learn�.

Sultan Abdulhamid I firstly, involved in restoration of the military system. He established modern schools. He tried to renovate the yeniceri corps and the naval forces. He established a new artillery troop. He made a census in yeniceri corps. Halil Pasha was leading this reform movements. But, his opponents complaint Pasha to the sultan and he was executed.

Instead of all his failures, Sultan Abdulhamid I was regarded as the most gracious sultan of the Ottomans. He administrated the fire brigade during the fire in 1782, in Istanbul and he won the admiration of his people. He was so religious and gracious that, he was called as �Veli� (saint).

Sultan Abdulhamid I reigned for 15 years, 2 months, 17 days. He died in 1789, in his 64^th year. He was buried in Bahcekapi, to the tomb, he had had built for himself.

His sons: Mustafa IV, Mahmud II, Murad, Nusret, Mehmed, Ahmed, Suleyman.
His daughters: Esma, Emine, Rabia, Saliha, Alimsah, Durusehvar, Fatma, Meliksah, Hibetullah Zekiye.

KUCUK KAYNARCA TREATY

Sultan Abdulhamid I acceded the throne, while the Ottoman-Russian war was still continuing. The Ottoman government signed the treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca in order to end the war, in 21^st of July, 1774. By this treaty, Crimea gained liberty. Russia gained legal right for trading in the Black Sea, moreover, Russia began to keep a navy in the Black Sea. The orthodox groups in the Balkans began to be protected by Russia. The Ottoman Empire had accepted to pay war compensation to Russia, and Russia had accepted to give back Wallachia, Moldavia, Beserabya, and the island in the Mediterranean Sea to the Ottomans. But, in these regions the Ottoman government would have forgiven all the criminals and would have not collected taxes. Immigration would be free.

Kucuk Kaynarca was the most repressive treaty that the Ottomans signed. Crimea was the first federation that the Ottoman Empire was completely lost. Turkish domination in the Black Sea had ruined. For the first time the Ottomans paid war compensation to another country. Russia were given capitulation, as well. Moreover, Russia had begun to interfere the Ottoman Empire�s internal issues.

CRIMEA

With the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca, a permanent solution could not have been found for the Ottoman-Russian relations. Russia was intending to annex Crimea. The Ottoman Empire attended Selim Giray Khan as the monarch of Crimea, but the Russians favoured Sahin Giray Khan and a interior war was began in Crimea.

In order to hinder another Ottoman-Russian war, the protocol of Aynali Kavak was signed. Some articles of the treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca was renovated. The Russians would have to retreated their forces from Crimea, but the Ottomans would have accepted Sahin Giray as the Khan. But, the people of Crimea had revolted against Sahin Giray, because, he was favoured by Russia. Sahin Giray called the Russian Army to support him and Russia invaded Crimea in 9^th of July in 1783.

The Ottoman Empire was restless about Russia�s invasion of Crimea. Meanwhile, Russia and Austria were making plans about sharing the Ottoman lands. As England was against a strong Russia, she provoke the Ottomans to declare a war. In 13^th of August, 1787, the Ottoman government declared a war against Russia. Austria allied with Russia in this war.

RUSSIA and AUSTRIAN WAR

The Ottoman Army invaded the Strait of Muhadiye. This strait was strategically located. Meanwhile, the Emperor of Austria Joseph marched through Sebes Strait with an army of 80.000.000 soldiers and 500 cannons. On 21^st of September, 1788; the Ottomans won a great glory. The Ottoman army was divided in to two, as they had to war in two different fronts. One half of the army was fighting with Russia and the other half was battling against Austria. Russia besieged the castle of Ozi and killed 25.000.000 people (17.12.1788). As this sad news arrived Istanbul, Sultan Abdulhamid I had fallen ill and paralysed. But, until his death in April the 7^th, 1789, he continued to rule the empire.

ARCHITECTURE

Sultan Abdulhamid was very fond of architecture. He had had built Sultan Abdulhamid I complex, Istanbul Beylerbeyi Mosque, Emirgan Fountain, Yahya Efendi Fountain in Haskoy, Gulsehir Kursunlu Mosque, Yozgat Ulu Mosque, Sebsafa Mosque in Unkapi and Karavezir Medrese (school).

MUSTAFA III (Mustapha III)

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Sultan Mustafa III was born in January 28, 1717 in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Ahmet III, and his mother is Mihrisah Sultana. He was very well educated and he was interested in astrology. He also researched the Ottoman and Islam histories.

Mustafa III was very religious, very merciful and kind hearted. In an earthquake taken two minutes and destroyed more than a half part of Istanbul, he helped the people from his own wealth.

Sultan Mustafa III was believing the necessity of a reform. He heard about the reformation of the King of Prussia Fredrick II and sent Ahmet Resmi Efendi there. Fredrick II sent his four secrets with Ahmet Resmi Efendi;

·Read history, and examine the experiences.

Tried to have a powerful army and during the time peace educate your soldiers.

Put emphasis on the economy, fill your treasury with money always.

When Sultan heard these he smiled and said; �We desire to achieve these too, but how?�. He was thinking that the worst disaster will come from Russia to his country. He worked day and night, he prepared for a possible war. He filled the treasury in order to use in the war.

He was planning to open the Suez Canal but he was tied by lack of talented statesmen. During the Ottoman-Russian War he had fallen ill and died because of a hearth attack in 21^st of October, 1774.

Sultan Mustafa was aware of the fact that a military reform was necessary. He declared new military regulations. He fixed bayonets to the rifles. He established a new artillery. He opened maritime and artillery academies. He obliged even the older soldiers to be educated. Baron de Tott was his most important assistance during these military reformations. Baron modernised the military system.

Sultan Mustafa III was a poet, and he has very famous poems.

The OTTOMAN-RUSSIAN WAR

After the treaty of Belgrade signed in 1739, Russia did not declare war against the Ottoman Empire, but, continued anti-Turkish provocation in the Balkans. With the conflict of Poland the Ottoman-Russian problems occurred again. Ottoman Empire since the second half of the 16^th century was effective on Polish sovereigns. But, in this period the Ottomans were not politically as strong as dominate Poland.

Russia ascended Stanisla Pontovoski to the throne in Poland. Polish people revolted against new king and in Bar Confederation they requested assistance of Ottoman Empire. Under these circumstances Sultan Mustafa III declared war against Russia in October 8, 1768.

Unfortunately, the war was continuing with Russia�s successes and Sultan Mustafa wanted to command the army himself, but, his health was not suitable. The bad news coming from the fronts very effected him very badly and he died on the 21^st of January in 1774.

ARCHITECTURE

Sultan Mustafa III restored the Mosques of Fatih and Eyüb Sultan destroyed in the earthquake happened in 1766. He made an urban revival in Istanbul, he nearly rebuilt the city. He had had built Laleli Mosque in four years. In his period, Uskudar Ayazma Mosque, Cavalry Inn, Mehmet Bey Mosque in Cairo, Sultan Mustafa III Mosque in Rhodes were built as well.

2008-01-07T03:47:00.000-08:00

Sultan Osman III was born in January 2, 1639. His father is Sultan Mustafa II, his mother is Sehsuvar Sultana. he succeed the throne in the age of 56. Because he lived a prisoner�s life in the palace, he was nervous by the character. But, he was a gracious and merciful sovereign.

Sultan Osman III hated music and the musician, he sent away all the musicians from the palace. Because he did not want to come a cross with the female servants he wore iron healed shoes. All the female servants were hiding as they heard the sound of his heals. He reigned for nearly three years, he changed his grand vizier for seven times.

It is known that he went in public by disguising himself. He died in October 30 1757 because of a boil in his body. He was buried near the tomb of Sultan Mahmoud I

POLITICS in OSMAN III's PERIOD

The treaty of Belgrade was signed in 1739 and a peace period was lived. Refugees came from Romania were settled in New Serbia Federation. Two castles were built to this region against a possible war with Russia. The Kolemen State in Egypt gained power. The Ottoman authority in Algeria was declined. Against the attacks of the pirates of Malta, a castle and a lighthouse were constructed in the Island of Midilli.

ARCHITECTURAL WORKS

In Sultan Osman III�s period famous Mosque of Nur-i Osmaniye was completed. Aydın Cihanoglu Mosque was erected and the famous Ahirkapi Light House was constructed.

MAHMUD I (Mahmoud I)

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Sultan Mahmud I was born on 2^nd August 1696, in Istanbul. His father was Sultan Mustafa II and his mother was Saliha Mother Sultana. He raised up with the love and interest of his grand mother Gulnus Sultana. Although he had lived behind the lattice; with the help of his intelligence, good-will and strong character he saved himself being spoiled. He had lessons from different teachers. He was interested in history, literature and poems. He especially studied music.

Sultan Mahmud I came to the throne, when he was 35 years old, on 1^st November 1730. He choose valuable people of his age and appointed them. He was a man of good character, determination, tender, mercy, patience and forbearance. He lived for the welfare of his people not for his own pleasure. By this way, he did not repeat his father�s and uncle�s failures. Sultan Mahmud I, spent his last two years being ill. At the age of 59, in 13^th December 1754 he had passed away. He was buried in the tomb of Mustafa II in Yeni Mosque (The New Mosque).

The REVOLT AGITATION

Sultan Mahmud I had to fulfil the wills of rebels that enthroned himself. Most of the seaside houses or small palaces built in Ahmed III�s sultanate were burned or damaged by the wills of the rebels.

Civil servants were appointed by the influence of the rebels. But, most of them left their duties after they had acquired fetva (command) from the seyhulislam, that they would not be killed.

Patrona Halil who was the leader of the rebels had accepted the authority of Sultan Mahmud I. But, he wanted to interfere in the state affairs. He wanted the sultan to appoint him as the commander of the Yeniceri Corps and to declare war against Russia. Patrona Halil and his friends were caught and executed on 15^th November 1730.

The friends of Patrona Halil had revolted again with the fear of being killed. Sultan Mahmud I wanted help from people to stop the revolt. His people helped sultan as they were tired of the revolts and the revolt was pressed in a short time.

REFORMS

The reforms held by Sultan Mahmud I were accumulated mostly in the military issues. Kont Do Bonnevale, a French nobleman, converted to Islam and took the name Humbaraci Ahmed Pasha made many reforms. Ahmed Pasha reorganised the artillery and bombardier corps. He established the Engineer Troops and trained modern educated officers for the Ottoman Army. By these reforms of Ahmed Pasha the Ottomans defeated Russia. Moreover, Sultan Mahmud continued the cultural reforms started in the Tulip Period

RELATIONSHIP with IRAN

Patrona Halil revolt begun, meanwhile, the Ottoman-Iran war was going on. The last attack of Iran was not defended as the army was busy with internal conflicts. The opposing attack that was started in 1731, lasted for a year. Kermensah was recaptured, on 30^th July 1731, Karican victory was attained, on 16^th September 1731, Umriye castle was captured on 11^th October 1731, and Tabriz was recaptured on 4^th December 1731. With the Ahmed Pasha Treaty (10^th January 1732) Caucus was left to the Ottomans and the western Iran and Azerbaycan was left to Iran. The Kasr-i Sirin Territory remained the same; the Aras River was accepted as the border line between two countries.

The Ahmed Pasha Treaty, satisfied neither the Ottomans nor the Iranians and the wars lasted until 1746. The Ottomans had a victory fore Baghdad, on 19^th July 1733. Shah Nadir attacked the Iraq territory (29^th May 1743), and besieged Musul (27^th September 1743). Nadir Shah who also besieged Kars retreated on 9^th October 1744. A new peace treaty was signed on 4^th September 1746, but the territories were not changed.,

The OTTOMAN-RUSSIAN-AUSTRIAN WARS

Russia interfered the internal affairs of Poland. During the Iran campaign they hindered the Crimean Army passing through the Caucus and occupied the Azak Castle, moreover Russia allied with Austria and Sultan Mahmud I decided to campaign against Russia on 16^th June 1736.

Banyaluka Victory was won on 4^th August 1737. The Russian forces attacked the Balkans and Crimea but they were defeated and retreated. Belgrade Castle was recaptured on 1^st September 1739. As the Ottoman Empire defeated the Russian Army on the Austrian front; Russia requested peace. The Ottoman Empire signed the Belgrade Treaty on 18^th September 1739 with Austria and Russia. According to the Belgrade Treaty; the Azak Castle would be left to Russians, the lands that Russia captured during the war would be given back to the Ottoman Empire and the Russians would not keep fleet of trade ships in the Black Sea. France supported this agreement and the privileges given to France were augmented.

The last years of Mahmud I passed in peace. But, the fires in Istanbul damaged the city. 800 houses in Bolat and Fener were burned in the great Istanbul fire on 28^th December 1745. In another fire, occurred five years later, some quarters and historic palaces of Istanbul were completely burnt (4^th February 1750). The great Istanbul earthquake occurred on 3^rd September 1754. During this earthquake, Istanbul was shaken for 14 times in 5-6 days. The cupolas of Ayasofya, Bayezid and Fatih Mosque were also damaged.

The OTTOMAN-RUSSIAN-AUSTRIAN WARS

ARCHITECTURE

In the period of Sultan Mahmud I who acceded the throne after Patrona Halil Revolt, the architecture was not so active, as it was in the Tulip Period. The Greatest work of this era was Hekimoglu Ali Pasha Mosque and Kulliyesi. The Fountain of Sultan Mahmud I was also among the works built in this period. In the sultanate of Mahmoud I there were also works built outside Istanbul. Osman Pasha Kulliyesi was built in Halep and Hobbenye. Sultan Mahmud I Tekke (convent) and Sehili was built in Cairo. Beside, Ezurum Vezir Ibrahim Pasha Mosque, Cagaloglu Haci Bekir Aga Kulliyesi, Sumru Serif Halil Pasha Mosque and Kulliye were built.

AHMED III (Achmed III)

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Sultan Ahmed III was born on the 30^th of December in 1673. His father is Mehmet IV and his mother is Emetullah Sultana. Sultan Ahmed is brother of Sultan Mustafa II. Ahmed was a tall man, he was a brunette with a falcon nose. He was so intelligent and gentile. He was very well educated by famous scholars.

Sultan Ahmed III acceded the throne after his brother Sultan Mustafa II�s death. He reigned in the Tulip Period, he was a poet and a calligrapher. He was interested in music, as well.

He followed the reforms and improvements in Europe closely. He brought print to the Ottoman Empire. He reigned for 27 years until the revolt of Patrona Halil. He left the throne in 1^st of October, 1730.

Sultan Ahmed III tried to restore the undisciplined yeniceri corps, in his early sultanate. But, he was ineffective on the yeniceris as they favoured him for the throne. Sultan Ahmed, appointed Corlulu Ali Pasha to be his grand vizier. Corlulu Ali Pasha assisted him in administration, re-organised the financial issues and supported him against his rivals.

During the reign of Sultan Ahmed III, the tension between the Ottoman Empire and Russia had increased. The reason was, Russia�s policy of retain the Mediterranean by dominating all the Slavs.

Sons: Abdulhamid I, Mustafa III, Sulryman, Bayezid, Mehmed, Ibrahim, Numan, Selim, Ali, Isa, Murad, Seyfeddin, Abdulmecid, Abdulmelik.
Daughters: Emine, Rabia, Habibe, Zeyneb, Zubeyde, Esma, Hatice, Rukiye, Saliha, Atike, Reyhan, Esime, Ferdane, Nazife, Naile, Ayse, Fatma, Emetullah, Ummuselma, Sabiha.

The WAR of PRUT

Russia was planing to provoke all the Slavs in the Ottoman Empire and to recapture the lands, lost previously. Char Peter incited the Princes of Wallachia and Moldavia, and he defeated Charles of Sweden in the war of Poltova. Charles took refuge to the Ottoman Empire, and the Russian forces raided to the Ottoman lands, therefore, the Ottoman Empire declared war against Russia.

Baltaci Mehmed Pasha was attended to be the grand vizier and he marched through Wallachia with an army of 100.000 soldiers, meanwhile, the Ottoman Navy sailed through the Black Sea.

Char Peter wrote a letter to Moscow and explained his desperate situation, Tsarina Katherina I requested from the Ottoman Empire. Both the Khan of Crimea and the King of Sweden were insisting on the necessity of a war, but Baltaci Mehmed Pasha did not trust the yeniceri corps, and he was afraid of a new crusade and he accepted Tsarina�s request, in 21^st July 1711. The Treaty of Prut was signed and the Castle of Azak was given back to the Ottomans. The Russians would have not intervene Charles� return to Sweden, and they would have not sent a permanent ambassador to Istanbul.

After this victory, the Ottoman government begun to plan recapture the island of Mora. The Venetian pyrites attacked the Ottoman trade ships and the people of Mora wanted Ottoman protection. As a result, the Ottomans declared war against the Venetians, in 8^th of December 1714. Silahtar Ali Pasha defeated the Venetian Navy and captured Modon, Koron, and Navarino. He invaded the Island of Mora, in 22^nd July 1715.

The TREATY of PASAROFCA

Austria declared that; the island of Mora should have been given back to the Venetians according to the treaty of Karlofca. Silahtar Ali Pasha marched through Hungary with his army. However, the Austrian army commanded by Prince Ogen defeated the Ottoman Army, in 5^th of August 1716, Grand Vizier Silahtar Ali Pasha had died. In 18^th August 1717, Belgrade was invaded by the Austrians. Damat Ibrahim Pasha replaced Silahtar Ali Pasha and he requested peace. The Treaty of Pasarofca was signed, and Upper Serbia, Belgrade and the plateau of Banat were given to Austria. Dalmatian shores, Bosnia and Albania were left to the Venetian Knights, and the island of Mora was given to the Ottoman Empire. (1^st of June, 1718)

In 1724, in Iran throne struggles were going on, Russia tried to benefit from this chaos and attacked Iran. To protect Iran, the Ottoman Army took a campaign to Iran. After this war the treaty of Istanbul was signed; and Azerbaijan was left to the Ottoman Empire, Derbent, Bacu and Dagistan were given to Russia.

The TULIP PERIOD (LALE DEVRI)

After the treaty of Pasarofca signed in 1718, the Ottoman Empire had entered a new phase, called the Tulip Period. The Tulip Period continued until the revolt of Patrona Halil. Sultan Ahmed III and grand vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha traced a peace policy.

The Period of Tulip; appeared as a time of literary, cultural and artistic improvement. The technological improvements in Europe were followed. For the first time the Ottoman Empire sent temporary ambassadors to Europe and first print-house was established by Ibrahim Muteferrika and the son of the Paris Ambassador Sait Efendi (16^th December 1727).

In Yalova, a cellulose factory was established. To control the fires in Istanbul a fire brigade was organised. In Istanbul, a textile factory was established and a tile manufacturer was opened. Many pavilions, palaces and tulip gardens were designed. Moreover, the oriental masterpieces were translated in Turkish.

The REVOLT of PATRONA HALIL

A group was so restless, because of the luxurious life of the palace. They were against the life of pleasure led by Grand Vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha. This group was provoking against the Sultan and palace as very bad news arrived from the Iran campaign. The yeniceris were restless, as well. The commander of 17^th troop Patrona Halil and his company had rebelled, in 25^th September 1730. The rebels started the riot from the Kasikcilar gate of the Bayezid Mosque. The tradesmen closed their shops and joined the revolt, they freed the prisoners and favoured by the yeniceris. The yeniceri commander Hasan Pasha attacked the rebels but he was failed to repress the riot.

Sultan Ahmed III, asked their aim and the rebels wanted Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha and other 37 statesmen. The leader of the Tulip Period Ibrahim Pasha and many statesmen were executed. The rebels destroyed the city and burnt the Sadabad Pavilion. Famous poet Nedim was killed in the revolt too.

At last the rebels asked for the sultan�s dethroning, and Sultan Ahmed III left the throne to his brother Mahmud, in 1^st of October in 1730.

ARCHITECTURE

Sultan Ahmed III had a very refined soul and he worked with Ibrahim Pasha harmoniously. Sultan Ahmed established two libraries; one in the Palace of Topkapi, the other one is in Yeni Camii. He had had built a fountain in Ayasofya which is one the masterpieces of the Ottoman art. Beside these, Yeni Valide Mosque in Uskudar, Corlulu Ali Pasha Medrese (school), Damat Ibrahim Pasha Mosque and Complex, Hospice, the Fountain in Ortakoy were built in his period.

MUSTAFA II (Mustapha II)

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Sultan Mustafa II was born on 6^th February 1664, in Istanbul. His father was Sultan Mehmed IV and his mother was Emetullah Rabia Gulnus Sultana. His mother was from Crete. He had a strong science education. On the third day of his accession; he declared a programme (hatti humayun) explaining what he was going to do. In his writing he was telling �We have prohibited ourselves pleasure, delight and comfort�. The article that he had written to one of his viziers, was as fallow : �Power and treasury are not necessary for me. If required I can eat only bread. I sacrifice my body for my religion. I forbear every kind of trouble. Until my mission towards my nation finishes I do not return back the campaign. Of course I, myself take part in the campaign.�

His Sons: Mahmud I, Osman III, Ahmed III, Huseyin, Selim, Mehmet, Murad.
His Daughters: Ummugulsum, Ayse, Emetullah, Emine, Rukiye, Sofye, Zahide, Atike, Fatma, Zeyda, Zahide.

KARLOFCA TREATY

Three great campaigns were prepared in Sultan Mustafa II�s sultanate. But, the Ottoman Empire suddenly lost power with the defeat of Sente. Meanwhile, Venice attacked Mana and Dalmatia; Poland attacked Moldavia. Russia was ruled by Petro. He modernised the Russian army and began to make an effort to reach the Mediterranean Sea through the Straits and to dominate in the Black Sea. He was defeated on his attack, in 1695, but he captured the Azak Castle a year after (6^th August 1696). At the end of the long lasting wars, the Ottoman Empire became tired. Sultan Mustafa II, accepted to sign a peace treaty, especially after the mediation of the English Government. According to this treaty, called �Treaty of Karlofca� (26^th January 1699); apart from Bonot and Temesuar all Hungary and Wallachia was left to Austria, Ukraine and Podolia was left to Poland and the sides of Mone and Dalmatia were left to Venice. Karlofca Treaty is the first treaty that the Ottoman Empire lost its territories. The regression period of the Ottomans started after this dote. A year after another treaty was signed with Russia, the Istanbul Treaty in 14^th July 1700, the Azak Castle was left to Russia.

It was 1703, and the regression of the Ottoman Empire was continuing. The Sultan seemed to forget what he said when he accessed the throne. Although he declared that he had prohibited himself pleasure and delight, he was joining hunting parties and he was going for hunting for months. He had left the state affairs to his grand viziers and to Feyzullah Efendi one of his teachers, whom he later appointed as the Seyhulislam (Minister of Islamic issues). This situation caused trouble among the soldiers in the army

HIS DETHRONEMENT

Sultan Mustafa II settled in Edirne instead of Istanbul because of his interest in hunting. The army in Istanbul revolted against the indifference of the sultan and marched through Edirne. Sultan, organised the army in Edirne and blockade the roads, but the commanders of the Edirne army retreated as they did not want to kill their brothers. The rebels entered Edirne. Sultan Mustafa II was dethroned. His brother Ahmed was enthroned (22^nd August 1703). Sultan Mustafa II did not live long after his dethronement. He died in 4 months and 8 days. His corpse was brought to Istanbul and buried in Turban Sultan Tomb, near the one of his father�s.

ARCHITECTURE

Architectural works done in the period of Sultan Mustafa II are :

SarachanebasiAmcazade Huseyin Pasha Kulliyesi (a collection of buildings of an institution), Mesrula Seaside House on the Anatolian Fortress, Millet (National) Library in Fatih and Erzurum Kursunlu Mosque.

AHMED II (Achmed II)

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Sultan Ahmed II was born in February 25, 1643. His father is Sultan Ibrahim I and his mother is Hatice Muazzez Sultana. His mother had taken care of his education. He knew Arabic and Persian. He had a mediate education. But, he followed the governmental affairs carefully.

TheWAR of SALAKAMEN

When Sultan Ahmed II came to throne Koprulu Mustafa Pasha was the grand vizier. He had a brilliant military career since Sultan Suleyman II�s reign. Pasha had passed Belgrade and advanced through the River Tuna and marched through Austria and attacked the Austrian Army. But he was ambushed and defeated in Salakemen, he had died there because of a shot from his forehead. The war could not have been completed and the Ottoman raids to Europe were ended. Pasha was planning to reform the Ottoman Empire but after his death thes reformation movements were came to an end too.

Poland was intending to recapture the capital of Podolia Kamanice invaded by the Ottomans in 1672. But, Kahraman Pasha defended the castle from the Polish attacks. Beside this, very successful defences were made against the Venetian attacks. The Castle of Egriboz was defended against the Venetian attacks but, the Castle of Sakız was captured by the Venetians in Septamber, 21 1695.

Sultan Ahmed II was a brilliant calligrapher, that he wrote many Koran. He was fond of poets and poetry. He died of cirrhosis in 1695. He was buried in Istanbul.

SULEYMAN II (Soliman II)

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Sultan Suleyman II was born in April 15, 1642 in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Ibrahim I, his mother is Saliha Dilasub Sultana. He was a religious, honest and intelligent man. He hated bribery or pleasure addiction. His mother Dilasub Sultana had taken care of his education. She brought famous scholars to the palace to educate her son.

He spent 40 years of his life imprisoned in his chamber. During his reign he struggled with bribery and tyranny and he restored the government.

Sultan Suleyman II reigned for four years and in the last two years of his reign he was ill. He died in 1691, in Edirne.

The VICTORY of EGRIBOZ

While Sultan Suleyman was occupying with internal conflicts, many problems were occurred with Poland. Austria had benefited from the internal chaos of the Ottoman Empire and captured the castles of Egri (November,1687), Istoni and Belgrade (September 1688).

The fall of Belgrade had opened a way to the Balkans and Austria invaded Bosnia and Wallachia. Against this advance, the Ottoman Army led by Celebi Ibrahim Pasha defeated the Austrian Army in Egriboz and Sultan Suleyman II in 1689 went to Austria campaign.

The Ottoman Army commanded by Koprulu Mehmed Pasha recaptured Gladova and Orsovia in June 8, 1690. The castle of Balgrade was captured by Austrians in June 11 1690 but the Ottoman forces taken back Belgrade in October 1690.

MEHMED IV (Mohammed IV)

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Sultan Mehmet IV was born in January 2^nd 1642, in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Ibrahim I and his mother is Turhan Hatice Sultana. Turhan Sultana was Russian originated. She had taken care of Mehmet�s education. Sultan Mehmet was a brilliant rider and a hunter. He was interested in literature.

Mehmet IV came to throne after his father�s murder in August 8, 1648. Sultan Mehmet was only seven when he was accessed.

He was a religious man. He prohibited alcohol, and closed the alcohol manufacturers. He had chosen his grand viziers from the family of Koprulu. Under the administration of Ahmed Koprulu the empire recovered from its depression. Moreover, the Ottoman Empire has reached its largest territories.

Sultan Mehmet IV had spent most his life with palace intrigues. After the Ottomans had been defeated in Vienna, the council dethroned him in November 8, 1687. Until his death he was imprisoned in his room with two concubines. He had died in Edirne, in 1693 and he was buried in Istanbul.

Sons: Mustafa II, Ahmed III, Beyazid
Daughters: Hatice, Safiye, Ummu Gulsum, Fatma.

THE DEATH of KOSEM SULTANA

When Sultan Mehmet IV came to throne, Canakkale Strait (Dardanels) was under the blockade of Venetians. The intrigues in the palace and Celali Revolt were going on. Kosem Sultana and her supporters were very powerful and they were very effective on the administration of the empire. Kosem Sultan decided to poison Sultan Mehmet and replace him with prince Suleyman. But, Turhan Sultana realised this plan, and Kosem Sultan was executed (September 3, 1651).

TARHUNCU AHMED PASHA

Tarhuncu Ahmet Pasha was appointed Grand Vizier in Sultan Mehmet IV�s period. Pasha was planning to re-establish the navy and to conquer the island of Kyrete he also devised a new budget. He tired to decrease the palace�s expenses. He also provided an annual budgetary. He was an honest and disciplined grand vizier but the palace intrigues caused his death, he was executed in 1653 because of rumours. With his death the corruption in the palace had increased.

Incapable people replaced Tarhuncu Pasha. The Yeniceris had revolted, the riots of Celali continued. Because of famine in the villages, the country people had immigrated to the cities, hunger and unemployment had occurred all around the country.

The PERIOD of KOPRULU

The alteration of the grand viziers was hindering the empire�s recovering. Meanwhile, everybody wanted to see Koprulu Mehmet Pasha as the grand vizier. He was offered to be the grand vizier but for the first time in the Ottoman history Mehmet Pasha laid down some conditions. First of his conditions was, the palace would be apart from the administration, secondly, if somebody would complained about him, his defence would be asked. Sultan Mehmet IV had accepted these conditions and Koprulu Mehmet Pasha came to be the grand vizier. He was a vigorous old man and he restored the tranquillity.

He restored the financial regulations, he recaptured the island of Limni, Bozcaada and Imros from the Venetians in 1657. He defeated the Russian Army in Konotop (1659) and he repressed the revolt of Erdel Prince Rakochi.

Anatolian Turkish States had liberated during the chaotic condition of the empire. Koprulu Pasha had attacked them, he restored unity violently as Murat IV previously did. He attended grand vizier for five years and he killed approximately 35.000.000 people.

He died in October, 31, 1661. His son, the greatest of all Turkish grand viziers Koprulu Ahmed Pasha held the viziership.

The Ottoman-Austrian War was continuing. Koprulu Ahmed Pasha raided to Austria he captured the castles of Uyvar (September 24, 1663) and Novigrad (November 4, 1663), and Austria wanted an agreement.

With the Vasvar Agreement(August 10, 1664), the Ottomans took the places they were invaded and Austria accepted to pay war compensation.

The TRAETY of BUCAS

The treaty was signed with Poland in October, 18, 1672. Due to the treaty, the Ottomans took Podolya and Poland had accepted to pay taxes both to the Ottoman Empire and to the Prince of Crimea. But the Council of Poland rejected to pay these taxes, and the Ottoman Empire organised a campaign to Poland. This campaign took four years, many castles were captured0; although, Poland sent an ambassador and requested peace under condition of taking back Podolia and Ukraine, the Ottoman Empire rejected. Meanwhile, Koprulu Ahmed Pasha were taken ill and he returned to Edirne. Ibrahim Pasha replaced him and invaded 48 castles in a short period of time. Under these circumstances, Poland had accepted to apply the treaty of Bucas. Another treaty was signed in Zarawno in October 27, 1676 and Koprulu Ahmed Pasha had died three days after this treaty.

The SECOND of VIENNA SIEGE

After the death of Koprulu Ahmed Pasha, Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha held the viziership in November 5, 1676. Hungary had revolted against Austria and wanted Ottoman authority again. Mustafa Pasha declared Emeric Thokely king to the central Hungry.

After, Emeric Thokely took the leadership of the Hungarians, he rebelled against the King of Austria Leopold I. Thokely asked for an Ottoman assistance and Mustafa Pasha had besieged Vienna in July 14, 1683.

The siege took 60 days. Mustafa Pasha was waiting for a fatal attack but the Pope sent the King of Poland to Vienna to defend the city.>

The Austrian and the Polish armies defeated the Ottoman army. The Ottomans withdrew through Belgrade. With the withdrawal of the Ottomans, Austrians entered Hungary, and invaded Vishgrad, Uyvar and Budapest.

This was the second siege of Vienna and the Ottomans failed to capture the city for the second time.

After, this defeat Sultan Mehmet IV was dethroned with the decision of council. Prince Suleyman replaced him in November 8, 1687.

ARCHITECTURE

Sultan Mehmed IV reigned for 39 years. The empire had reached its largest territories. Many monuments were erected in this period. Yeni Mosque and its complex began to be built 60 years ago, was completed. Between 1658-60 the fortress of Roumelia and Anatolia were repaired. The Egypt Market in Istanbul, the Palace of Hunkar, Koprulu builging complex, Safranbolu Koprulu Mehmet Pasha Mosque were built.

IBRAHIM I

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Sultan Ibrahim I was born in November, 5, 1615. His father is Sultan Ahmed I and his mother is Maypeyker Kosem Sultan. He came to throne following the death of his older brother Murad IV. Ibrahim was so depressed with the palace intrigues and his brother�s unexpected death that he did not want to believe that he became the Sultan. He could not have been believed that his brother was death until he saw his dead body.

Sultan Ibrahim was suffering from neurasthenia and he had nervous attacks. He was the only crown prince when he was ascended, when his son Mehmed (Mehmed IV) was born a public rejoicing was organised. Ibrahim was a merciful sovereign and he declared firmans to hinder the famine and poverty. But, he was dominated by his mother. His reign can be considered as the reign of Kosem Sultana. In August, 1648 Sultan Ibrahim was strangled.

When Ibrahim came to throne he was in his 25^th year. As a prince he was so obsessed that he would be killed because of intrigues and he became a neurotic. His grand vizier Kemankes Mustafa Pasha administrated the empire, he signed the treaty of Kasr-i Sirin with Iran and he restored the financial problems. He renovated the navy as well.

Sons: Mehmet IV, Suleyman II, Ahmed II, Orhan, Beyazid, Cihangir, Selim, Murad
Daughters: Ummu Gulsum, Peykan, Atika, Ayse, Gevherhan

MILITARY and POLITICAL CONDITIONS

The period of Ibrahim I was full of palace intrigues and power struggles. In spite of this chaotic condition of empire, some military achievements were gained. In April 19 of 1645, a campaign to Kyrete was made. In April 30, the castles of Aya-Todori and Liman were captured by admiral Yusuf Pasha. The castle of Hanya was captured in August 22, 1645. Sultan Ibrahim I appointed Deli Huseyin Pasha to be the admiral and he invaded, Kisamo (March 9, 1646), the castle of Kandiye (July 7, 1646). In the 7^th of July 1647 the Castle of Kandiye was captured too.

ARCHITECTURE

During Sultan Ibrahim�s period the the Circumcision Room was built in the Palace of Topkapi. And the Sepetciler Pavillion was built in the sea shore of Topkapi Palace.

MURAD IV (Amurath IV)

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Sultan Murad IV was born in June 26, 1612 in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Ahmet I and his mother is Mahpeyker Kosem Sultana. His mother is Greek originated. Murad was a tall, huge man with a round face. He is one of the most powerful sultans of the Ottoman history. He was very good at archery. He was so intelligent, strong, courageous and energetic. He proved his strength in the wars he had taken place.

Murad was a very religious man and he called the Seyhulislam Yahya Efendi (Minister of Religious Affairs) as �father�. He had forbidden tobacco and alcohol. In his period to go out at nights was forbidden too. He had spoken Arabic and European languages. He was very fond of science and he encouraged the scientists for new inventions. For example; he supported Hazerfen Ahmet Celebi, who made first flight in the history by affixing wings. Ahmet Celebi flew from the Tower of Galata to Uskudar.

Sultan Murad followed closely the circumstances around and he interfered if necessary. During his first years he reigned under the guardianship of his mother, afterwards he ended the sovereignty of women in the palace and he punished the disloyal and deceitful viziers. He tried to solve the problems of the empire. He reigned for 17 years but he died at the age of 28 because of an illness.

His sovereign can be considered in two parts. He was ascended at the age of 11 and his mother Kosem Sultan ruled the country. Kosem Sultan and the viziers on her side had lynched Hafız Ahmet Pasha to the soldiers, in front of child sultan. This period was attended with great disasters. The peace and harmony in the Ottoman lands were completely lost and tyrants became the rulers of the cities. Murad took the authority in his adolescent and repressed all the tyrants, and he re-established the supremacy of Sultan. By prohibiting tobacco he assimilated the idles gathering in the taverns. He restored the judicial regulations by very strict punishments and even by many executions.

STRUGGLE with IRAN

When Murad came to throne the Ottoman Empire was socially and economically declining. In Anatolia and Roumelia rebels were gaining power. There were riots all over the country. In this period Yusuf Pasha was governor of Egypt. But, another man wealthy and powerful Subası Bekir was dominating the region. He revolted and tried to take all the control, Abaza Mehmet Pasha also assisted him. Subası Bekir declared that he wanted to be the Governor of Egypt and the Ottoman Government has sent him a written command and appointed him as the government. However, at the beginning of his revolt he asked for a Saffavian assistance and the Saffavies sent him an army, as soon as Subası Bekir received the written command he sent the Saffavian forces back. Shah Abbas of Saffavies tried to take advantage of this confusion and captured Baghdad in 1624.

The war continued for seventeen years. During the first years of this war, Sultan Murad IV was a child, and Saffavies gained many successes. Sultan Murad IV firstly, repressed the revolts, restored the administrative regulations and concentrated on the Ottoman-Saffavi war. He decided to command the army himself and organised the raiders. On his way to Iran he visited the tomb of Mevlana in Konya. He marched through Revan with 100.000 soldiers. He recaptured Revan the Saffevian Army withdrew, the Ottoman forces advanced through the River Aras and taken back Tabriz, this was the sixth time Ottomans invaded Tabriz. But, winter was coming and the health of Sultan was not suitable for a further movement and the Ottoman Army returned to Istanbul. But, Saffavies had began new raids in the region.

CAPTURE of BAGDAD

After, Saffavies taken back Revan and continued their action in the Ottoman territories, Sultan Murad IV decided to organise a campaign to Baghdad. On the 198^th day of his departure from Istanbul, he arrived Baghdad in November 16, 1638. He blockaded the castle of Baghdad for thirty days and battled courageously. He castle surrendered in the end.

The treaty of Kasr-i Sirin was signed, Azerbaycan and Revan were left to the Saffavies, the Ottomans took Baghdad and the Zagros Mountains were accepted as the border line between two countries.

STRUGGLE with POLAND

The Ottoman-Saffavie war and interior problems caused new problem especially in Poland and Crimea. Political conflicts occurred in Crimea, in order to hinder these conflicts Sultan Murad IV ascended Can Giray to throne and restored Ottoman authority there. Poland had accepted the Ottoman supremacy and to pay annual taxes in 1630. But, they began not to pay taxes and Sultan Murad decided to declare a war against Poland. Polish King Vladislas asked for peace and the treaties between two countries were renovated.

ARCHITECTURE

Sultan Murad IV put emphasis on architecture and in his period many monuments were erected. Some of the are; Ok Meydanı Mosque, Bayram Pasha Dervish Lodge, Tomb, Fountain, Primary School, Konya Serefeddin Mosque.

GENC OSMAN (Othman II)

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Sultan Osman II was born on 3^rd November 1604, in Istanbul. His father was Sultan Ahmed and his mother was Haseki Sultana who was Greek originated. Osman II was enthroned when he was 14 years old, following his uncle Mustafa's dethronment. His mother was very careful about his training. Sultan Osman had a strong education. He learned the eastern and the western languages as Arabic, Persian, Latin, Greek and Italian, fluently that he translated the classics. Osman II had a very handsome face, he was so clever, energetic, and bold.

Sultan Osman II married Sheikulislam Er�ad Efendi�s and Pertev Pasha�s daughters but it was untraditional since Sultan Mehmed II�s period. This manner of him was a great change because, since the sultanate Selim I, the sultans had not married outside the palace.

Osman II could have not found himself a grand vizier who could hold his plans. He was dethroned and murdered in the Yedikule Dungeons, he was buried near the tomb of his father Sultan Ahmed I, in the Sultan Ahmed Mosque.

Sultan Osman was a reformer, he reformed many governmental issues. He limited the authority of the seyhulislam (Minister of Islamic issues) as soon as he ascended the throne.

ACTUAL

Sultan Osman was a writer and a poet. He wrote poems in Persian with Farisi pen name. The sultan who was murdered at a very young age revealed his sorrow in his poetry.

His sons: Omer, Mustafa

His daughters: Zeynep

The RELATIONSHIP with IRAN

When Sultan Osman II came to the throne Grand Vizier Halil Pasha was on Iran campaign. Although the Ottoman army was defeated in Pul-i Sikeste, Iranians wanted peace because of the possible Ottoman invasion to Erdebil city. In the Sera desert, the Sera Treaty was signed; between two countries based on the Nasuh Pasha Agreement signed before (26^th September 1618).

ITALY And MEDITERRENEAN CAMPAIGNS

The Ottoman fleet commanded by Halil Pasha went on campaign, in the summer of 1620. After leaving Istanbul, the fleet came to Navarino and sailed through the north, and then to the Adriatic. Two Italian ships were occupied in Dirac. The Ottoman navy landed on the Italian shores and occupied Manfredonia dominated by Spain.

POLAND CAMPAIGN

There was a friendly relation between the Ottoman Empire and Poland. Dinyester River was forming the territory between two countries. Although a tension was emerged between the Ottoman Empire and Poland during the Ottoman-Austrian wars, peace was not violated. But, the Khan of Crimea who gained the cast of military union by the campaigns to Poland, was ignoring peace. Also, the Polish occupied the Hotin Castle that was dominated by Moldavia, and interfered the internal affairs of Moldavia (1617). Besides they continued to interfere in the internal affairs of Wallachia and Transilvania. Upon these events Sultan Osman decided to campaign Poland. Meanwhile, the forces commanded by Ozi Governor Iskender Pasha defeated the Polish army in Yas (20^th September 1620).

Sultan Osman II marched through Poland, on April of 1621. Poland was trying to organise a stronger army. With Austria�s assistance they extended their army. The Ottoman Army came to the fore of Hotin on 2^nd September 1620. The castle was besieged. In the battle the Polish army occupied the ottoman fronts and the yeniceris lost their courage and concentration. The Polish ambassadors declared that, they caused the war, and the Hotin Treaty was signed (20^th September 1621). According to the treaty; the Polish and the Ottomans would not attack each other�s territories and Poland would give 40.000 coins to the Crimea Khan as it had been before.

REFORM MOVEMENTS

Sultan Osman realised that, the war against Poland was lost as a result of the army�s the lack of concentration and courage. He decided to reform the military system. He started his reforms with the Kapikulu Corps. When he understood that the number of soldiers were less than the number of people that were registered in book of salary he stopped paying extra money. With this event an enmity between the soldiers had raised against the sultan.

Sultan Osman II was aware of all the abuses in the administrative system but, he was so inexperienced that he could not have guessed where to start. He wanted to establish a new army, composed by the soldiers of Anatolia, Egypt and Syria. At the same time he had ideas about reforms on the palace, harem and science organisations and he was planning to organise a new judicial system. The Kapikulu Corps were anxious about this situation and they did not spare themselves pointing out it. The educated class led by sheyulislam Es�ad Efendi was so silent.

The yeniceris learned that Sultan Osman had sent a secret will to the Halep, Erzurum, Sam and Egypt Governors in order to register new soldiers. The sultan wanted to go to Anatolia in order to collect soldiers. Meanwhile, a new of revolt led by Durzu Maanozlu Fahrettin was begun in Lebanon. Sultan Osman, told that he would go to Anatolia in order to press the revolt. But, the grand vizier Dilaver Pasha and sehyulislam Es�ad Efendi told him that �it is inconvenient for the great Sultan to go to Anatolia for an unimportant revolt� and tried to prevent him from going to Anatolia. Sultan Young Osman who realised that he had no other alternative declared that, he would make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Since then, sultans never made pilgrimage, before. Grand Vizier Dilaver Pasha and Es�ad Efendi, tried to dissuade Sultan Young Osman from his plans. The governors of the cities that Sultan would have passed through were informed and ordered to restore the safety. 500 yeniceris and cavalry would given to the sultan and the others left in Istanbul in order to protect the city. The grand vizier, and many important officers and clerks would have joining the group going to Mecca.

SULTAN YOUTG OSMAN's MURDER

A day before the setting up the sultan�s tent in Uskudar the yeniceris gathered in the Suleymaniye. The yeniceris rebelled and they attacked the palace and killed some state officials. Sultan Osman tried reconcile the yeniceris. But, they rejected his authority. They dethroned him and enthroned his brother Mustafa I for the second time. The rebels were not planing to kill the sultan. But the chiefs of the revolt knew that Osman was a powerful sultan and he would have been a danger in the future. They brought him to the Yedikule Dungeons and killed him there. Osman so bravely struggled against his eight executioners but he was strangled. His funeral was held in Sultan Ahmed Mosque the next day and he was buried in his father�s tomb in the same mosque. Sultan Osman�s murder caused many revolts in Anatolia. The Ottoman people never tolerated the murder of the sultan enthroned at the most beautiful days at his youth and always worked for the welfare of his nation. But his youth and inexperienced administrations, prepared him this horrible end.

MUSTAFA I (Mustapha I)

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Sultan Mustafa was born in 1592 in Manisa. His father was Mehmet III, his mother was Handan Sultana. He came to throne two times. He had a neurotic character.

Sultan Mustafa I lived a prisoners life in his room for fourteen years during his brother Sultan Ahmet�s reign. In this period, the throne heirs were isolated or killed to hinder the throne struggles. Sultan Ahmed I did not kill his brother but imprisoned him. The isolation of the heirs was named as the �cage life�.

After 14 years of cage life, Mustafa came to throne, but, as a result of his abnormal behaviours the military council and the statesmen dethroned him. Sultan Osman II (Osman the Young) ascended the throne after him. But, the yeniceris dismissed Sultan Osman II and killed him. Mustafa was enthroned again. But, after one and a half year he was dethroned.

Sultan Mustafa I was a very religious man. He was a very gracious ruler. He thrown golden coins to the pool for the servants. He spent his life by reading books about Islam and praying. When he was invited to the throne for the second time he rejected by saying �I am reading the Koran and I do not want to be the Sultan�.

His second reign was abolished by the declaration of the Seyhulislam (Minister of Islamic Issues), in this declaration the Seyhulislam said �a neurotic can not be the Caliph�. Mustafa I had died 16 years after his dethronment because of a nervous attack he had on 20th January 1639.

REVOLT of ABAZA PASHA

After the murder of Osman the Young, the cavalry soldiers had revolted in May 22 1622. Abaza Pasha was revolted too. Under these circumstances the murderers of Osman were executed.

AHMED I (Achmed I)

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Sultan Ahmed I was born on 18th April 1590 in Manisa. His father was Sultan Mehmet III, his mother was Handan Sultana. He was very well educated, he had spoken Arabic and Persian fluently. He was a very brilliant rider, and a fencer. He was a successful soldier and he was very fond of archery and hunting. He had dressed up so modest. He came to throne after his father�s death on 21st December 1603. Sultan Ahmed I was the first sovereign who organised the administrative regulations since Suleyman the Magnificent. He was a political genius, although he ascended throne very young he administrated the empire very successfully.

In Sultan Ahmed�s life the number 14 was important. He came to throne in the age of 14, he reigned for 14 years and he was the 14^th sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

He had died at the age of 28 because of typhus (22nd November 1617.

Sons: Osman II, Murad IV, Ibrahim, Bayezid, Suleyman, Kasim, Mehmed, Hasan, Selim, Hanzade, Ubeyde
Daughters: Gevherhan, Ayse, Fatma, Atike

RELATIONS with IRAN

When Sultan Ahmet came to the throne, the Ottoman Empire was in war with Austria in the West, with Iran in the East. The Ottoman Army commanded by Sinan Pasha marched through Revan but the Persians were plundering the villages on the way. Because of lack of food, the Ottoman Army spent the winter in Van (Eastern Anatolia).

The Ottoman army defeated the Persian commanded by Shah Abbas, their target was to take back Tabriz. But, Shah Abbas made a sudden attack and defeated the Ottomans and they withdrew firstly to Van and after to Diyarbakir. As the Ottoman-Austrian war was continuing, grand vizier Nasuh Pasha accepted Shah Abbas� request of peace. In 1612 the Ottoman-Iran war was ended with the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha.

The REVOLTS of CELALI

Celal of Yozgat revolted with his thousands of supporters during the period of Selim I. This revolt had been repressed but conflicts in Anatolia had continued. In Ahmed�s period these revolts appeared again. Tavil Ahmed, Canbolatoglu, Kalenderoglu and Deli Hasan had revolted. Grand vizier Kuyucu Murad Pasha was a very strict soldier and he was rather cruel. He repressed these revolts so violently. He killed even the innocent people, but he ended the revolt.

The TREATY of ZITVETOROK

When Sultan Ahmed I was ascended the empire was in war with Austria. The Ottoman forces were advancing through Budapest from Belgrade. The castles of Pest and Hatvan were captured bloodlessly (September 1604). The castle of Vac was captured in October 16, 1604. With the command of Sultan Ahmed I the Ottoman army walked through Budapest and besieged the castle of Estergon in August 29, 1605. In October 3, 1605 the castle was captured.

Both the Ottomans and the Austrians were in economic and politic attrition. And they decided to sign a peace treaty. The Zitvatoruk treaty was signed in November 11, 1606. The castles of Egri, Estergon, Kanije were given to the Ottomans, the castles of Rop and Koman were given to the Austrians. Austria would pay Ottomans 70.000.000 gold of compensation. The Ottoman Sultan would call the Austrian sovereign as the Emperor of Rome (Caesar) and two sovereigns would send gifts to each other in every three years. With this treaty the Ottoman supremacy on Austria began to be declined.

ARCHITECTURE

On 4^th January 1610, the foundation of famous Sultanahmet Mosque was laid. Sultan himself worked as a labourer. The mosque was completed in June 1617. The other mosques built in his period are; Istanbul Mesih Pasha Mosque, Piyale Pasha Mosque, Omer Pasha Mosque.

MEHMED III (Mohammed III)

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Sultan Mehmed III was born in Manisa, on 26^th May 1566. His father was Sultan Murad III and his mother was Safiye Sultana. His grandfather Suleyman the Magnificent gave his name as an attribution to Mehmed the Conqueror. Mehmed was medium size and he had a handsome face. He had a very strong education. He attended the classes of famous scholar Hoca Sadeddin Efendi. In 1583, he was appointed as Manisa governor.

On 27^th January 1595, he succeeded his father.

Sultan Mehmed III admired his mother. His mother Safiye Sultana benefited from this and she dominated the state by using her influence on her son. She forced the sultan to be acted in the way she desired. Mehmed III was a very religious sultan, he appreciated Islam. He was so sensitive that on hearing bad news he had fallen ill. The Celali revolts and the Iran Wars made him so depressed. He prohibited alcohol and closed all the taverns.

Sons: Ahmed I, Mustafa I, Selim, Mahmud

AUSTRIA and WALLACHIA CAMPAIGNS

When Mehmed III came to throne while the Ottoman-Austrian wars were continuing and he immediately focused on the Wallachia problem. In 1595, the Austrian Army besieged the Castle of Estergon. Mehmed Pasha did not assisted the castle although he and his army were 49 km. away from the region. As a result of this negligence, the castle surrendered after a very brave defence.

Sinan Pasha campaigned to Wallachia ruled by Prince Mihai Vitezul. The Ottoman forces invaded Bucharest and Tergoviste. But, Mihai attacked after a while and the Ottoman forces retreated. Many soldiers had died.

Following the fall of the Estergon Castle, Visegrad was occupied by the Austiran forces. The yeniceris reacted against the loss of these important castles, and towns and they forced the sultan for another campaign.

INVASION of the CASTLE of EGRI

As the empire was facing with crisis, Sultan Mehmed III assembled the state council and said:

�From, our forefather, the founder of our empire Osman Ghazi; to our grand father Suleyman the Magnificent all the sultans went campaigns in front of their armies. Our grandfather Sultan Selim II and our father Murad III left this tradition. We too, had mistaken while ordering our pashas campaign. Surely, our soldiers sons would like to see us in front of them. We have decided, were are going to campaign very soon. Be prepared.�

His mother rejected this plan, fearing to let the Sultan out of Istanbul. But her son said;

�Mother, we are a Sultan son of a sultan, why we have armoured this sword in Eyup Sultan Mosque? Our decision is certain we are going for the campaign. We do not sacrifice our state for the throne.� On 20^th July the army had moved and the castle of Egri was besieged and on 12^th October 1596, it was surrendered to the sultan.

The TRIUMPH of HACOVA

Following the invasion of Egri Castle, the Ottoman army had advanced to Hacova where they came across with the European army, organised by Austria, Germany, Wallachia, Spain, France, and Poland. Austrian archduke Maximillian was commanding this army. In the war, the Ottoman army was failed to defend the riffle shots of the Europeans and many soldiers had died.

But the Ottoman raiders were continuing to struggle very courageously and they defeated their enemies and opened the way through Vienna (26^th October 1596).

After this triumph the sultan returned to Istanbul. Satirci Mehmed Pasha was appointed to the Austria front. He recaptured the Tata Castle but he was defeated by the Austrian Army on the north of Budapest. Meanwhile, a peace treaty was tried to be signed with the representatives of Austria. After a while, the Austrians captured the castle of Raab which was invaded by Suleyman the Magnificent (1598).

INVASION of the CASTLE of KANIJE

Satirci Mehmed Pasha did not win a military success for two years. During these years Austria occupied many Ottoman castles. Therefore, Mehmed Pasha was executed and grand vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha replaced him. He marched through Vienna. Meanwhile, Austria demanded peace and offered to give Egri and Hatvan. The Ottoman representatives wanted Estergon, Neograd, Vurek and Yanikkale, as well; and the treaty was abandoned.

Damat Ibrahim Pasha spent the winter in Belgrade, and he begun to put pressure on Austria by besieging the castle of Kanije. The Turkish slaves in the castle exploded the powder magazines and very badly damaged the walls. But, the castle did not surrendered. An army of 20.000 soldiers commanded by Philippe Emanuel arrived to defend the castle. But the Ottoman Army defeated both of the armies and the castle had surrendered.

Kanije was transformed to the centre of the Roumelia region. Tiryaki Hasan Pasha was appointed as the governor of Kanije. Damat Ibrahim Pasha was promised to be the grand vizier as long as he lived (10^th September 1601). After this triumph, Istolni, Belgrade and Estergon were invaded (1601-1603).

RELATIONS with IRAN

Iran ignored the treaty signed in 1590. Shah Abbas by benefited from the Ottoman-Austria war and declared war in 25^th August 1603. Shah Abbas invaded Tabriz and Erivan. Sultan Mehmed III had passed away while this war was lasting. He was 38 years old.

ARCHITECTURE

Sultan Mehmed III had build the Golmarmara Halime Hatun Mosque and for his mother, he build Yeni Valide Mosque. Beside these, Mehmed III had restored many mosques.

MURAD III (Amurath III)

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Sultan Murad III was born in Manisa, on 4th of July 1546. He was the son of Sultan Selim II and Afife Nur Banu Sultana who was Venetian originated.

He was a gracious ruler, he had spoken Arabic and Persian fluently. After, his father ascended he was appointed as the governor of Manisa. He took lessons from the famous scholars of Manisa. He was one of the most intelligent sultans of the empire. After, his father�s death he went to Istanbul and ascended the throne on 22nd December 1574. Like his father, he left the administration to Sokollu Mehmed Pasha.

Sultan Murad III led a life of pleasures, he never left Istanbul during his reign and he was very much influenced by the women in the palace. The woman dynasty emerged in his period continued in the following years. The mothers and wives of the sultans began to dominate the empire. He ascended the throne at the age of 29 and reigned for nearly 21 years. He died because of apoplexy on 15th January 1595.

With Sokollu Mehmed Pasha�s successful administrations, the Ottomans gained power. The territories extended to 19.902.000 km square. The relations with protestant Britain had been improved against a Catholic unity led by the Pope, and, later Holland joined the Ottoman-Britain alliance. First British capitulation was given and Britain sent a permanent ambassador to Istanbul.

Sons: Mehmed III, Selim Bayezid, Mustafa, Osman, Cihangir, Abdullah, Abdurrahman, Abdullah, Hasan, Ahmed, Yakub, Alemsah, Yusuf, Huseyin, Korkud, Ali, Ishak, Omer, Alauddin, Davud.
Daughters: Ayse, Fatma, Mihrimah, Fahriye.

RELATIONS with POLAND

The King of Poland Henry ascended the throne with assistance Sultan Selim II. The Sultan was intending to ally with Poland against their neighbour Austria.

The beneficial relations with France designed by Suleyman the Magnificent was continuing. Domination on Poland would give the Ottoman Empire superiority on Austria. However, the French King had died and Henry left the Polish throne, and was crowned king in France. Sultan Murad III intervened Poland again and favoured Bathary the Ruler of Transylvania to succeed the throne. The Sultan signed an agreement with Bathary and the security of the northern border of the empire was consolidated.

RELATIONSHIP with VENICE

Until 1584 the Ottoman-Venetian relations were remained peaceful. But in this year, the Venetian navy commanded by Admiral Emmo attacked an Ottoman ship in Kefelonia. That Ottoman ship was bringing the corpses of the Governor of Trablusgarp Ramazan Pasha, his wife and his children killed in the Yeniceri Revolt.

The Venetians, killed 250 Ottoman naval cadets in this attack, raped women and thrown them into sea. The Ottoman council sent an ultimatum to the senate of Venice.

The Venetian Senate accepted the Ottoman ultimatum and executed admiral Emmo, sent the corpses of Ramazan Pasha, his wife and his children and the goods in the ship to the kadi of Preveze.

The Ottomans sent another ultimatum to Venice saying;

�The Venetian pyrites will never touch an Ottoman ship military or civilian. If happens a navy will be immediately sent against Venice.�

The Senate of Venice against the decisiveness of Sultan Murad III sent three ambassadors to Istanbul and tried to solve the conflict tranquilly.

RELATIONSHIP with BRITIAN

The Ottoman-British trade relations were established in this period as Queen Elisabeth I sent two ambassadors to Istanbul and addressed Sultan Murad III as the �Great Turk�. The Sultan responded the Queen as; �We are not only an ally of the federation of England but also the protector of the Queen�.

The first English ambassador William Harborne entered the presence of Sultan Murad III in April 24, 1583 and presented gifts to him. Until this time Genoise, Venetian, Dubrovnic and French merchants had the right for trading in the Ottoman harbours due to the capitulation given in 1569. Elisabeth I was sent the ambassador in order to have a capitulation for merchandising in the Ottoman lands.

The countries without capitulation were entering the Ottoman seas with a French flag. But, the Ottoman Government estranged the Catholics following the blood-bath of St. Bartholomew in 1572. In order to break the war equipment embargo imposed by the Pope, the Ottomans designed firm relations with Protestant England. Consequently, English-French rivalry in the Mediterranean had began and the Ottoman Empire had benefited from this rivalry.

The CONQUEST of MOROCCO

The Ottoman Empire captured whole Northern Africa except Morocco. When Murad III acceded the throne, a rivalry was going on for Morocco and the Moroccans were divided in to two as the Ottoman supporters and Portuguese supporters.

In 1578, the Moroccan Sultan invited the Ottomans to the land and the Ottoman forces led by Ramazan Pasha defeated the Portuguese army in Vadi-ul Sebil and annexed the Sultanate of Morocco in to Ottoman territories.

RELATIONS with IRAN

Shah Ismail the son of Shah Tahmasb, ignored the peace treaties singed with the Ottoman Empire. Some Emirates depended to the Ottoman Empire favoured Shah Ismail, and Sultan Murad commanded the Governor of Van to reconcile the peace in that region. The Governor of Luristan (Iran) took refuge to the Ottoman Empire and the relations with Iran had been ruined.

Meanwhile, Shah Ismail had died and throne rivalry was began. The Governor of Van, declared that, an attack to Iran should be made by benefiting from the disorder in Iran. Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was against the war but, Sinan Pasha and Lala Mustafa Pasha were desiring to command the army in the campaign.

The war was declared in spite of the oppositions of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha and the first stage of the war took 12 years between 1577 and 1589. Turkish troops commanded by Ozdemiroglu Osman Pasha, had defeated the Persian forces in Cildir and invaded the whole Georgia. Tiflis became an Ottoman federation in 1578, Sirvan was annexed into Ottoman territories in the same years.

Under these circumstances Iran requested a peace treaty. In March 21, 1590 the treaty of Ferhad Pasha was signed in Istanbul. According to this treaty; Kars, Tabriz, Gence, Sehrizur (Azerbaycan, Georgia, Northern Caucus, Daghestan) remained in Ottoman territories.

RELATIONS with AUSTRIA

In 1590 a peace treaty was signed with Austria valid for nine years. In 1593, Telli Hasan Pasha attacked rebellious Uskuks and Emperor Rudolph II regarded this attack as a reason for war and he rejected to pay taxes by ignoring the peace treaty. Moreover, he incited Wallaciha and Moldavia to rebel against the Ottoman Empire.

Telli Hasan Pasha besieged the Castle of Siska in Croatia. At the end of very bloody collisions Hasan Pasha and his soldiers and the Governor of Herzegovina had died. As a result of these casualties the Ottoman government declared war against Austria.

After the wars fought between two armies, Austrian Army passed the River Tuna and attacked Ruscuk, they tyrannised the Muslim people there. When Sultan Murad III had died the war was continuing.

ARCHITECTURE

Sultan Murad III had had built new parts to the Palace of Topkapi. Famous architect Sinan built many masterpieces until his death. Some of the monuments commissioned to Sinan are; Azapkapi Sokollu Mosque, Izmit Pertev Pasha Mosque, Semsi Ahmed Pasha Mosque and School, Kilic Ali Pasha Mosque in Tophane, Muradiye Mosque in Manisa, Ivaz Efendi Mosque and Ramazan Efensi Mosque. Architect Sinan had died in 1588 and the monumental architecture had been declined.

In Sultan Murad III�s period, the Castle of Kars was built. The walls of Kabe-i Serif in Mecca were rebuilt by marble. The Toptası Asylum in Istanbul was constructed.

SELIM II

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Sultan Selim II was born on 28th May 1524, in Istanbul. He was the son of Suleyman the Magnificant and Hurrem Sultana. Hurrem Sultana was Slav originated. Because, Selim II had blond hair he often called as �Yellow Selim�.

Selim was very well educated. In his father's period he ruled many provinces in Anatolia. While acting as a governor he continued his education.

Suleyman I had passed away when Selim was the governor of Kutahya. On hearing his father's death he went to Istanbul.He succeeded the throne at the age of 42. He was a insignificant sultan compered to his ancestors. His brothers Shehzade Bayezid and Mustafa were killed during his father Suleyman�s period and he ascended the throne without any conflicts. But, he was not as talented as his father Suleyman or his grandfather Selim I. Under successful administrations of experienced statesmen of the period especially grand vizier Sokollu Mehmet Pasha the empire continued to be a world power. Sokollu Mehmed Pasha had been the grand vizier for 15 years and it is possible to say that he ruled the empire in this period. Sultan Selim II never went to campaigns himself. Never commanded his army. Inebahti defeat is a result of his Commander of the Seas Ali Pasha�s failure in commanding the navy.

Sultan Selim had died on 5th December 1574, in Istanbul. He was the first Ottoman Sultan died in Istanbul.

Sons: Murad III, Abdullah, Osman, Mustafa, Suleyman, Mehmed, Cihangir.
Daughters: Fatma, Sah, Gevherhan, Esma.

CAPTURE of SAKIZ ISLAND

The Ottomans extended their power in maritime too and they captured most of the Mediterranean islands. The island of Sakiz was under the domination of the Geneoise State and they were paying taxes to the Ottoman Empire, besides, their trading was controlling by the Ottomans. The island was one of the important trade centres of the Aegean Sea. The countries without capitulation were bringing their goods to Sakiz and by the Venetian, Genoise and Dubrovic merchants they were selling those goods to the Ottomans.

The Geneoise islanders were not paying their taxes regularly, moreover, they were attacking the Ottoman forces. Under these circumstances, a navy was sent to the island commanded by Piyale Pasha and Sakiz was captured. His victory brought Piyale Pasha the vizier rank, in 1568.

CAMPAIGN to INDONESIA

The Ottomans achieved many overseas glories. To assist the Muslim Ace State in Indonesia an Ottoman Navy emerged by 15-20 ships was sent to the Far East in 1569.

The CAMPAIGN to YEMEN

The power struggle in the Indian Ocean was continuing since Suleyman I�s period. A revolt had began in Yemen and an army sent there, the revolt immediately repressed in 1570.

The CONQUEST of CYPRUS

Cyprus was ruled by the Venetians. Before Ottoman invasion of Egypt, Cyprus was paying taxes to the Mamelukes. After the Turkish invasions the islanders were imposed to taxes to the Ottoman Empire. The island was very significant in terms of its strategic and geographical location. Lala Mustafa Pasha was insisting on the necessity of a campaign to Cyprus. But, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was opposing the campaign considering the possibility of a new crusade.

In October 1570, the Ottomans captured the capital Nicosia (Lefkosa) and most of the small towns of Cyprus. But, Famagusta (Magosa) one of the important cities of the island remained. Lala Mustafa Pasha besieged the city both from the land and the sea. The siege took nearly a year at last the city had surrendered in August, 1571 and Turks settled on the island.

INEBAHTI WAR

After the capture of Cyprus, the Europeans began to organise a new crusade navy. The navy was commanded by Don Juan and it was emerged by the ships of Venice, Spain, Malta, Vatican and the other Italian governments. Experienced admirals of the Ottoman Navy, Pertev Pasha and Uluc Ali Pasha recommended a defence war, but Ali Pasha the Minister of Navy made the first attack.

The war taken place in the North of the island of Morea on 7th October 1571. In the end of the war the Ottomans were defeated and Ali Pasha had died. Uluc Ali Pasha was rescued his ships and he replaced Ali Pasha.

This defeat declined the Ottoman authority in the seas and in the trading roads.

CAPTURE of TUNISIA

The Ottoman Navy under the command of Uluc Ali Pasha sailed through the Mediterranean Sea and, invaded some shores of Tunisia in 1574.

CANAL PROJECTS

Russia invaded Astrahan, her main target was to go down through the Mediterranean. 13 years later the Ottoman government decided to take back the city. They planned to cut a canal between the Don, running into the Sea of Azov from the northwest, and the Volga, running into the Caspian Sea from the northwest. This would link the two seas, the Black Sea, already an Ottoman lake, with the Caspian. It will facilitate the entry of the Turks into Persia and the central Asia. Moreover it will blocade Russia in her intention to go downwards to the Mediteranian.

ARCHITECTURE

In 1569, the canal of the Black Sea was began to be built. Ayasofya Mosque was restored and two new minarets were constructed. Mimar Sinan built Selimiye Mosque in Edirne in October 30, 1574.

Eyub Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque, Selimiye Mosque in Konya, Sokollu Mosque in Luleburgaz, Sultan Selim Mosque in Payas are some of important monuments erected in Selim II�s period.

Defterdar Kasım Bey was appointed for the canal project. He completed one third of the canal. The winter was on the way and the Khan of Crimea was discouraging the Ottoman workers by romouring about the difficulties of winter and the workers gave up working. The Ottomans abandoned the enterprise, they did not begin again.

The Suez Canal was planned in the period of Sultan Selim II but it could not have been began.

KANUNI SULTAN SULEYMAN (Soliman I)

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Suleyman I was born on 27^th April 1495, Monday in Trabzon. His father was Sultan Selim I and his mother was Hafsa Sultan. Suleyman I was a tall man with a round face, hazel eyes broad forehead and a thin beard.

Suleyman the Magnificent had reigned for forty six years (1520-1566) and this is the most memorable epoch of the empire, when it reached a pitch of grandeur and prosperity which was never afterwards surpassed, and from which it soon began to decline.

Suleyman is commonly designated by European writers the �great� or the �magnificent�. But the native historians style him the �lawgiver�(Kanuni), �the lord of his century� and �completor of the perfect ten�.

His father Sultan Selim I put great emphasis on Suleyman's education, he took his first education from his grandmother Gulbahar Hatun. When he reached the age of seven, he was sent to Istanbul to his grandfather Sultan Bayezid II where he was educated by famous scholar Karakızoglu Hayreddin Hızır Efendi. He studied history, science, literature, and theology besides the lessons of war tactics and techniques. Afterwards, he went to his father in Trabzon again and stayed there until he reached 15. At the age of 15, he wanted to be a governor, and he was sent to Sarki province and then to Karahisar and to Bolu, after a short while he was sent to Kefe.

After Sultan Selim I ascended to the throne in 1512, Shehzade Suleyman was invited to Istanbul as the regent of his father Selim whom was dealing with throne struggles with his brothers. At the same time he was the governor of Saruhan province. After Selim I had passed away, Suleyman succeeded him without any rejection as everbody knew he was a very serious and confident man. He never hesitated and never broken the commands he gave. He obliged people according to their capacities and abilities. He died on 7^th September 1566, in his 71, while he was commanding the siege of Sziget.

Because he made written laws and applied them strictly he was called as �Kanuni� (Law giver). He was a very gracious ruler, very fair and he never tyrannised his people. For example; he found the tax coming from Egypt so much and he had made a research there and found that the people were overcharged, and discovered the governor was tyrannising them, so he immediately changed the governor.

His sons: Selim II, Bayezid, Abdullah, Murad, Mehmed, Mahmud, Cihangir, Mustafa
His daughters: Mihriman Sultan, Raziye Sultan.

REVOLTS

Suleyman I struggled with some revolts in the first years of his reign. At first, Canbirdi Ghazeli, the governor of Damascus (Egypt) had revolted. His aim was to re-establish the state of Mameluke. He was defeated by the Ottoman Forces led by Sehsuvaroglu Ali Bey in January 1521, and executed. Afterwards , Ahmed Pasha had revolted by saying he should have been the governor of Egypt. Another rebel was Kalender Celebi who took the support of Safevis of Anatolia. The last revolt was in 1527 by Baba Zunun, Suleyman had successfully repressed off all these revolts.

CHARLES and EUROPE

Hungarian King Charles� main target was to dominate the whole Europe. He captured the King of France Francis who opposed his plans and imprisoned him.

The mother of the King of France, Duchess Dangolen had written a letter and demanded help from Soliman I. Admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha was sent to Nis in the Mediterranean coast of France and defeated Charles. He rescued both France and Francis.

HUNGARY CAMPAIGNS

Afterwards, Soliman campaigned through Germany. Ottoman forces recaptured Buda and came to Estergon. Then they had advanced through Austria and Germany. Many towns, cities and castles were conquered in Austria and the campaign took seven months. Austria was ruined after these battles. At last Ferdinand wanted a peace treaty and Charles� plans to conquer whole Europe had been broken (22^nd July 1533).

Ferdinand never gave up his aims on Hungary. John Zapolya died and his son Sigmund succeeded him. Ferdinand took advantage of this interragnum on the Hungarian throne and besieged Buda again. Consequently, Soliman I had organised another campaign to Hungary with a more powerful army, in 1540. He appointed Sigmund to the principality of Wallachia and he annexed Buda. Soliman Pasha was appointed as the governor of this city. As a result of this campaign, Austria took only northern part of Hungary. The Ottoman-Hungarian relations continued until the death of Sultan Soliman.

The CAMPAIGN of MALTA

The Knights of Saint John who were settled in the island of Malta after the conquest of Rhodes were a threat for the Ottomans. For the Ottoman domination and the peace of Trablus and Algeria to capture Malta was inevitable. The island was besieged by the Ottoman Navy commanded by Turgut Reis. Unfortunately, Turgut Reis had passed away during the siege and Malta could not have been captured.

CONQUEST of BELGRADE

When Suleyman I ascended the throne, the most powerful state of Europe was the German Empire. The Emperor Charles had very a close relationship with the King of Hungary Lois II. Lois II refused to pay the annual taxes to the Ottomans and he killed the Ottoman ambassadors sent for reconcilation.

Mehmed the Conquerer had been captured Serbia during his campaigns to Europe, but Hungary could not have been conquered, yet. Suleyman I decided to capture Hungary, considering her strategic location and the Ottoman navy besieged Belgrade from the river of Danube. Although the city had been defended very successfully the Ottomans defeated the Hungarians in August 21, 1521. Bali Pasha was appointed as the Belgrade guardian. After this campaign some people from Belgrade sent to Istanbul and a Belgrade village had been established. The conquest of Belgrade was the first conquest of Suleyman I. In the following years, the city had served as an important Ottoman passage to Europe.

The Annexation of Algeria

Baba Oruc and his brother Hizir Reis (Barbaros) captured Algeria from Spain in 1516. Barbaros took control of Algeria in 1518. Sultan Selim I gave them two galleys and levents (marines).

After Suleyman succeeded Selim, he invited Barbaros Hayrettin Pasha to Istanbul and appointed him as The Commander of the Ottoman navy (1533). Thus, Algeria was annexed into the Ottoman territories. Barbaros under Suleyman's protection, captured the Aegean islands belonged to the Venetians.

THE BATTLE of CERBE

After Turgut Reis (Turgut Captain) besieged the island of Cerbe which was dominated by Spain, a Crusader Navy under Andrea Doria�s command had arrived. After a war of a great victory was won by the Ottomans. Cerbe was annexed into Ottoman territories (1559).

THE BATTLE of CERBE

VICTORY of PREVEZE

In Suleyman's period the Ottoman navigation had improved with Barabaros' victories and his great knowledge and experience on the seawars. The Ottomans were dominating the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Islands. The Ottoman authority and extension in the seas agitated the Europeans. Moreover, the campaigns in Austria and Hungary were gloriously continuing. The Europeans decided to organise a Naval Crusade under the command of Admiral Andrea Doria and Venetian, Geneose, Malta, Portuguese and Spanish marines had been organised.

Crusade Navy was composed of 602 ships and the Ottoman Navy had only 122 ships. Two navies came across on the Gulf of Preveze on 27th September 1538. The Ottoman Navy commanded by Barbaros Hayreddin won a victory. As a result of this war the Mediterranean Sea had turned out to be a Turkish lake.

The CAPITULATION

First capitulation was given to the Geneose merchants, in 1352 and they had given the right to merchandise in the Ottoman territories. In 1535, with reconciliation of the Ottoman-French relationships, France represented a draft capitulation to Sultan Suleyman but he had refused this draft in which the equality of two states was the basis. Moreover, an indefinite capitulation was demanded. However, according to the Ottoman laws every privilege given should had been renovated with every Sultan. This law was called as Ahidname (Oath Paper).

TTOMAN and SAFFAVIES

While Soliman I was victoriously campaigning in Europe, many revolts in Anatolia had began. In Iran Akkoyunlu State came to an end but it was replaced by the state of Saffavies. It became a threat for Ottomans. Soliman I went on his firs campaign to Iran after he provided the peace in Europe temporarily by the Treaty of Istanbul. Ssffavies� antagonist policies to the Ottomans and provocation of the Shii community(an Islamic sect), were the reasons of this campaign. Tebriz, Azerbayjan, Hamedan were invaded. Also Baghdad was captured by the campaign of Iraq (1534).

Shah Tahmas of the Safavie benefited from Sultan Soliman�s Austria campaign and captured Tebriz, Nahcivan and Van. After that Soliman I decided to campaign through Iran for the second time. He returned back to Istanbul victoriously (1548). However, Suffavies attacked again in 1553. The enemy forwarded in Anatolia and came to Mus (Eastern Anatolia) and besieged Erzurum. As a result, Sultan Soliman went on his third campaign to Iran. Revan, Nahcivan and Karabag were captured. Shah Tahmash who was in a difficult situation surrendered and Amasya Peace treaty was signed (1555).

With this treaty the problem of Iran which was continuing in since the time of Sultna Selim I was solved. The Eastern Anatolia, Tebriz and Baghdad were left to the Ottomans. The Treaty of Amasya was the first formal treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Iran. Also it was the first religious peace which was made in Islam World.

The first French capitulation was given just before the campaign of Cyprus, in 1596. To provide an alliance with the Protestant World, against the Catholic world and the Pope, the British were given capitulation in 1580 and Holland took her privilege in 1612. With these caputilations, beside the privilege of merchandising, the rights of the merchants, transit visas, judicial status of the merchants, taxes and security were organised.

In the following centuries, with the regression of the Ottoman Empire the capitulations served as a great burden and they turned out to be a tool of presure in the hands of the Europeans. In 1914, the Ottoman government had abolished all the caputilations with the beginning of World War I although the Europeans had protested.

TTOMAN and SAFFAVIES

ARCHITECT SINAN (MIMAR SINAN)

Sinan was the greatest architect of the most brilliant period of the Ottoman Empire. He is considered as one of the greatest architects of the world as well. He built his masterpieces during the sultante of Suleyman.

His most important works are: Halep Husrev Pasha Mosque, Istanbul Haseki Kulliye, Istanbul Sehzade Mosque and Medrese (University), Uskudar Mihriman Mosque, Istanbul Suleymaniye Mosque and Kulliye, Tekirdag Rustem Pasha Mosque and Kulliye, Silivrikapi Ibrahim Pasha Mosque, Istanbul Rustem Pasha Mosque, Istanbul Sinan Pasha Mosque, Topkapi Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque and Kulliye, Findikli Molla Celebi Mosque, Babaeski Semiz Ali Pasha Mosque, Buyukcekmece Kanuni Sultan Suleyman Kulliye and Bridge, Suleymaniye Tekke (Dervish Mansion).

YAVUZ SULTAN SELIM (Selim I)

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Yavuz Sultan Selim was born on 10th October 1470. His father was Sultan Bayezid II and his mother was Gulbahar Sultana from Dulkadirogulları State. Selim I was a tall and a strong man. He was a very brave soldier and naturally tough. He was very well educated. Selim was very much interested in science and theology beside the governmental issues. He attended the lessons of famous scholar Mevlana Abdulhalim.

During the sultanate of his father Bayezid II, Selim was appointed as the Governor of Trabizon (The Black Sea Region of Anatolia). He learnt the administrative regulations and the military system of the Empire there. He ruled the region very successfully. He improved the Ottoman relations with the neighbourhood states. He organised three campaigns to Georgia against their continuos anti-Ottoman propagandas. With these successful campaigns Selim invaded Kars, Erzurum, Artvin (1508). All the Georgians living in those regions converted to Islam.

Selim was a brilliant rider and a successful fencer. He was very good at wrestling and archery too. He had a military spirit but he was fond of arts as well. He was very modest; for example; he was used to eat only one sort of food from a wooden plate, in every meal.

He never liked vanity, never spent the Empire�s money. During his reign, the treasury was completely full. He sealed the treasury and bequeathed as fallow;

�If any of my successors could fill the treasury as much as I did, would use his own seal, otherwise they all will use my seal�.

This will was kept by Selim�s successors, as none of the Sultans came after him, could have been filled the treasury as much as he did, his seal was used to lock the treasury for centuries.

Although his ancestors were all bearded, he always shaved his beard. He also had an earring.

He died on 22th September 1520 because of cancer. He was just fifty years old. The historians agreed on that, he had short but a very brilliant career.

His sons: Suleyman (the Magnificent)
His daughters: Hatice Sultan, Fatma Sultan, Hafsa Sultan, Shah Sultan.

The BATTLE of CALDIRAN

Sultan Bayezid�s failure to suppress the Saffavid�s more decisively caused serious disputes for power and the right of succession among his five adult sons. Selim won this throne struggle and came to throne with an ambition to restore Mehmet II�s energetic policies of conquest and in fact to achieve Mehmet�s goal of establishing a world Empire.

However, when Selim came to throne the Ottoman Empire was in a difficult situation because of the Saffavid�s in the East. Selim had decided to abolish them and open the way through Turkmenistan.

The VICTORY of MERCIDABIK

The Ottoman-Saffavid conflict was continuing since the Mehmet the Conqueror�s period. Selim�s Iran campaign increased these conflicts and Saffavid�s allied with the Mamelukes of Egypt. On hearing this allience Selim campaigned to Egypt (June 5, 1516). On the 27^th day of August the Ottoman Army arrived the Mameluke borders. On the 18^th August the Castle of Antep had surrendered and the Castle of Besni followed it the other day.

The battle had began on 24^th August 1516 in Mercidabik. The Mameluke Army fell in defending their lands against the powerful Ottoman artillery. They have surendered. The Mameluke Sultan Gansu Gavri was found dead. With this victory, a passage through Syria was opened to the Ottomans.

Selim�s main goal was to unite all the Muslim-Turks. He began his campaign to Iran in the spring of 1514. The Saffavids and the Ottomans came across in Caldıran on 23^rd of August 1514. The Ottoman army victoriously defeated the Saffavids. The Shah escaped and saved his life.

Selim had continued his campaign and entered Tabriz. He sent many artists and the scientist living in this city to Istanbul. After, this victory Shah Ismail lost his power and the Eastern Anatolia became completely Turkish.

On 15th September 1514, Selim left Tabriz and marched through Karabag, his aim was to spend the winter there and to conquer Iran completely in the spring. However, the condition of the army was not suitable and he went to Amasya. After the victory of Caldıran, Erzincan and Bayburt were invaded, the Castle of Kemah was captured.

In June 1515, the Dulkadirogulları State was defeated in the Battle of Turnadag. As a result of this glory, Diyarbakir, Mardin and Bitlis were captured. Thus, Turkish unity was restored in Anatolia.

The MAMELUKES and the VICTORY of RIDANIYE

Sultan Selim entered Alleppo without any resistance on 19th September 1516. Humus (21^st September 1516) and Sam (27^th September 1516) had surrendered, the Emirs of Lebanon had accepted the Ottoman supremacy. Sultan Selim went to Jerusalem on 30th December 1516 , to Gazze on 2nd January 1517.

After the Battle of Mercidabik, Tumanbay ascended the throne. He rejected the Ottoman authority, moreover, he killed the Ottoman ambassador sent for reconcilation of the relations. Tumanbay bought new cannons and weapons from the Venetians and he constructed a defence line through Ridaniye.

Sultan Selim and his army passed the Desert of Sina in 13 days and arrived Ridaniye. Sultan Selim was the first commander passed this horrible desert since the ancient times. As a military genius he circled around the El-Mukaddam Mountain and attacked the Mameluke Army from the south. The Mameluke artillery was stationary and they could not have moved the cannons. The Ottoman Army had won this battle in few hours. With this victory, the Mameluke State had came to an end.

CALIPH SULTAN SELIM

Cairo was captured on 24^th January 1517, Selim entered Cairo on 4^th February 1517. He put an end to the Caliphate of Mameluke Abbassids. Tumanbay had been caught and executed. After the campaign of Egypt; Syria Philistine were annexed into the Ottoman Territories. The Oriental trade roads were gone under the Ottoman authority. The Ottoman treasury has filled up with taxes and bootys. On 6^th of July 1516, the Holy Relics (Emanet-i Mukaddese) as Mohammed�s robe, teeth, sword, flag; were sent to Selim from Hedjaz. The last Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkel was deposed from his rank as the spiritual head of Islam, and Selim was invested with the dignity by the sheriff of Mecca on 29^th August 1517. Selim consequently added to his other title that of �servant of Mecca and Medina (the holy cities)�. Al-Mutawakkel himself gave his title to Selim and he had had dressed the Caliphate Robe himself in the ceremony in Ayasofya.

Sultan Selim was the first Ottoman Caliph and his successors took the title as well. From this period on the Ottoman Sultans began to be the Sultan of all the Islamic World.

When Selim came to throne, the Ottoman territories were 2.375.000 km square, during his short but very victorious career he enlarged the Ottoman Territories to 6.557.000 km square. He was one of the most important of all the Ottoman sultans. He had a great role in the apogee of the Ottoman Empire.

He had a very successful spy organisation. He had information from all around the country. He was very successful in choosing his officers.

ARCHITECTURE

Sultan Selim firstly enlarge the Docks of Halic (Golden Horn) built by his grand father Mehmet the Conqueror. He had had built many social and commercial complexes. His career is usually filled with military achievements but he had found time to erect some mosques and hospices, as Yavuz Sultan Selim, Diyarbakır Fatih Pasha, Elbistan Ulu Mosques. During his life The Mosque of Selimiye was began to be built but it could not have been completed. His son Suleyman the Magnificent completed it.

BAYEZID II (Bajazet II)

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Sultan Bayezid was born in Dimetoka on 3^rd December 1448. He was the son of Mehmet the Conqueror. His mother was Mukrime Hatun. Bayezid was a brave, religious and a calm man. His father Sultan Mehmet II was an admirer of science and he put great emphasis on his son�s education. As all the sehzades of the Ottoman Empire, Bayezid was also very well educated by the famous scholars of the period.

He was only seven when he was appointed as the Governor of Amasya a centre of culture and civilisation since The Seljuk Empire. This city was ideal for the education of an heir apperant.

Sultan Bayezid II was a very religious man and very fond of literature. He invited many famous poets to the palace. He was so gracious that he always helped the poor. He had spoken Arabic and Persian fluently, afterwards, he learnt Cagatay and Uygur dialects. Besides theology, he studied philosophy and mathematics. He left the throne on 24th April 1512 and passed away one month later.

His sons: Mahmud, Ahmed, Seyidsah, Selim, Mehmed, Korkud, Abdullah and Alimsah.
His daughters: Aynisah, Gevher, Muluk, Hatice, Selcuk and Huma

CEM SULTAN

Cem was the younger brother of Sultan Bayezid. When Mehmet the Conqueror had died, Bayezid was the governor of Sivas, Tokat and Amasya, Cem ruled the province of Karaman and Konya.

Karamani Mehmet Pasha the last grand vizier of Sultan Mehmet II sent two messengers to both of the shehzades just after the death of Sultan. But the messenger sent to Cem had been caught on the way by Sinan Pasha the Anatolia Deputy. Cem could have learnt his father�s death four days later. The Yeniceris revolted and killed Karamani Mehmet Pasha as a result of this event. They enthroned Korkut the son of Bayezid as the regent (May,4 1481).

Prince Bayezid arrived Istanbul on 21^st May 1481 and was declared Sultan. Cem on the other hand arrived Inegol on 27^th May 1481 with his 4000 soldiers. Sultan Bayezid sent an army led by Ayas Pasha on Cem. On 28^th May 1481 Cem had defeated Bayezid�s army and he declared himself Sultan of Anatolia and made his capital Bursa. He proposed division of the empire, with Bayezid ruling only Europe. Bayezid rejected the proposal, of course, defending the continued unity of the Ottoman State. He marched through Bursa and the decisive battle between the two took place near Yenisehir. Cem lost the battle and took refuge in the Mameluke State with his family. He went to Cairo.

In Cairo Cem has received a letter from his brother. In this letter, Beyazid offered Cem one million akces(Ottoman money) in order to dissuade from the throne. Cem rejected this offer and came to his homeland. On 27th May 1482 he besieged Konya. The Ottoman Army commanded by Sultan Bayezid went to Konya, Cem ended the siege and withdrew to Ankara. He was intending to go to Cairo again but all the ways had been kept by Bayezid. Meanwhile, Pierre d�Aubusson one of the Knights of Rhodes invited Cem to Rhodes.

On 29th June 1482 Cem went to Rhodes. He was planning to leave the island in a short time, and he made an agreement with the knights about his departure. But, the knights had deceived him and they did not permit him to depart from the island. Cem began to live a prisoner�s life in Rhodes. Eventually, this was very unfortunate for Cem himself and for the Ottoman Empire.

Afterwards, Cem was sent to France. Sultan Bayezid sent a messenger to France and requested Cem to be kept there.

Pope Innocent VIII intended to organise a new crusade using Cem. But, he could not had been successful as the other European countries rejected. He offered Cem to convert to Christianity. Cem of course rejected this offer. Afterwards, the Pope had taken more than 40.000 gold annual, from Bayezid for Cem�s expenses. The Ottoman Empire had stopped the campaigns as the Pope threatening them with Cem�s liberation.

After all these events, Cem Sultan had died in February 25, 1495. Sultan Bayezid declared national mourning for three days. He also tried to take Cem�s body from the Pope, but, four years later after Cem�s death his body was brought to the Ottoman lands. He was buried in Bursa.

THE BALKANS

The first step in Sultan Bayezid II�s policy was to advance in Roumelia. Bosnia was captured during Mehmet II�s period. But, Herzegovina could not have captured yet. He sent raiders to this region and they invaded in 1483. The castles of Kilia and Akkerman in Moldavia were captured and Moldavia was imposed taxes. In 1491, Hungary campaign was made. In May 1499, Greece Campaign was made.

The SAFFAVIES and SHAH ISMAIL

In the period of Beyazid II, the Saffavies ruled by Shah Ismail, were dominating Iran. In 1501, Shah Ismail captured the city of Tabriz and he extended his power. Many Turkmen groups had accepted his authority. Shah became very effective especially in Iran and Azerbaycan. As he grew stronger, he became a threaten for the Ottoman Empire in the Eastern Anatolia. He sent many provocateurs to Anatolia in order to rebel the Ottoman subjects against the empire.

The Shah�s propaganda against the Ottoman Empire grew very effective that on 9th April 1511; in Hamideli an Ottoman called Shah Kulu (servant of Shah) had revolted. He was caught and executed but with his revolt the empire was driven in to a chaotic condition. The sehzades found their father�s policies very weak and they began a throne struggle among themselves.

The WAR with the VENETIANS

After the conquest of Istanbul, Venice had entered a period of economical decline. They left the Crusade Union after Mehmet the Conqueror gave them capitulation. They began to agitate the people of island of Morea as they always followed an anti-Ottoman policy. Sultan Beyazid II had decided to solve this problem by a war.

In 1499, Inebahtı, Moron, Koron and Navarino were captured. Afterwards, the Ottomans began to invade the Aegean Islands. The Venetians realised that it is impossible to defeat the Ottoman army and navy and they requested an agreement. The agreement was signed and lands captured by the Ottomans were given back to the Venetians.

SHEHZADE SELIM

Sultan Beyazid II had eight sons. But, five of them had premature deaths except; the oldest Ahmet, Korkut and the youngest Selim. Ahmet was the governor of Amasya, Korkut was ruling Manisa and Selim was the governor of Trabizon.

The statesmen were planing to dethrone Bayezid II and enthrone Ahmed. But the Yeniceris' favorite was Selim. Ahmed failed to win the throne struggle and the statesmen invited Korkut to the throne, but the Yeniceris rejected his sovereign.

Sultan Bayezid could have not resisted anymore, he invited his son Selim to Istanbul and left the throne in 1512. The Ottoman territories was 2.214.000 km² when Bayezid was ascended and he left his son 2.375.000 km² of land.

ARCHITECTURE

Sultan Bayezid II had had built many great monuments in Istanbul. In 1505, Istanbul Bayezid Mosque was completed, on 14th September 1509 Istanbul was destroyed by an earthquake and in 1510 the city was began to be restored.

Some monuments constructed in Bayezid II�s period are; Istanbul Davud Pasha Mosque, Hatuniyye Mosque in Tokat, Bayezid Medrese in Amasya, Bayezid Mosque in Edirne, Bayezid Medrese in Istanbul, Shehzade Mosque in Istanbul.