OTTOMAN SULTAN AND PASHAS: January 2008

Thursday, January 10, 2008

Monday, January 7, 2008

He is the last of the 36 Ottoman Sultans. He was the son of Sultan Abdulmecid, his mother is Gulistu Sultana. He was born on 2^nd February 1861. He lost his parent in his early ages. His father died in the year he was born and his mother has passed away a few years later. As an orphan prince, he was taken care of one of his father�s wives Sayeste.

His older brother Sultan Abdulhamit II took care of Vahiduddin�s education. He always loved and protected his younger brother.

Sultan Vahiduddin was an intelligent and literate man. He usually liked to read the Islamic works. He was exceptionally intelligent, kind and elegant. He used to listen much but speak less. During, his visit of Vienna, everybody had admired his politeness. He used to listen others with a great attention.

When Sultan Mehmed Resat accessed, Yusuf Izzettin the oldest son of Sultan Abdulaziz was his successor. But, Yusuf Izzettin had died and Vahiduddin became the crown prince.

The World War I started when Vahiduddin was a crown prince. During the war, he officially visited Germany. Following the death of Sultan Mehmed Resad he was crowned Sultan with the name Sultan Mehmed Vahiduddin VI.

The TREATY of SEVR (SEURRE)

The Treaty of Seurre was clarified during the San Remo Conferance in May 11, 1920. And it was it was given to the Ottoman Government to be approved.

The Allies attacked Anatolia and Trakya with Greek Army in June 23, 1920; in order to compel the Ottoman Government to accept the Treaty. They invaded the Bursa, Usak and Nazilli. Their aim was to put pressure to the Ottomans in order to hinder their objections.

In 22 July, 1920 the Council of The Ottoman Empire was assembled, the assembly was directed by Sultan Vahiduddin. They have decided that, � It is acceptable to destroy a weak existance�, and ratified the treaty. Tevfik Pasha opposed to sign the treaty which divides the Turkish Territories and destroys the Turkish nobility. Therefore, Resat Halis Bey aand Rıza Tevfik Bey signed the Treaty of Sevres in August 10, 1920.

According to the Sevr (Sevres) Treaty, The Ottoman Territories were dividing in to pieces and Turkish Nation was loosing their right to live independently.

The North-western territories were lined with the Istanbul city. West Anatolia (Izmir province) was left to Greece. South-eastern provinces, Mardin, Urfa, Gaziantep, the Amanos Mountain and northern side of Osmaniye were left to France. From Bayazit, Van, Mus, Bitlis, to Erzincan will left to the independent Armenia. In Iraq and Syria, it was decided to establish an independent Kurdistan. Beside these, the territories left to the Turks would be separated in between the populations, as; Antalya and Konya would be Italian, Adana, Sivas and Malatya would be French, and Northern Iraq would be British. In Istanbul, the Sultan and the government would have been settled, but, Istanbul would have been an international region, the Straits would be controlled by a commission with its own financial resources, its own army and navy. Ankara and Kastamonu were left to the Turkish population but their independence has bounded most strictly. According to the Treaty of Sevres the minorities would be more privileged than the Turks, as they would not pay any tax and they would not do military service. If anybody would leave the Turkish nationality, he/she would be more privileged and never be permitted to take Turkish citizenship again.

The military forces of the government had bounded in to 50.700 soldiers, and tanks, cannons and planes were completely prohibited. Only volunteered soldiers were used. The navy will be established of 7 gunboats and 6 torpids. Submarines were prohibited as well.

The articles about financial and economical issues were more bounding than the military ones. By those articles, The Ottoman Empire turned out to be an Ally colony. According to the treaty, a Finance Commission would be established by English, French and Italian representatives and this commission would be administrate the Ottoman incomes.

After the Ottoman Government signed this treaty, the Turkish Independence Movement had accelerated and the Turkish people lost their faiths in Istanbul and the dynasty completely.

Turkish Parliament established in Ankara, rejected the Treaty of Sevres and in their assembly in August 19, 1920, they declared the Ottoman Dynasty and the Ottoman Council as traitors.

The WAR of INDEPENDENCE

In the World War I The Ottoman Government took place with Germany. The Ottoman Army had defended the territories with bravery, but, they could not have hindered the division of their country. The treaties of Mondros and Sevres brought an inevitable collapse the Ottoman Empire.

Sultan Mehmed Vahiduddin gathered the Ottoman Parliament to approve the unification of the national boundaries ( Misak-i Milli). Regardless of the Allies� consent they have accepted it. Therefore, Britain occupied Istanbul and dissolved the parliament.

The leader of the National Independence Movement Mustafa Kemal Pasha went to Samsun (The Black Sea) in May 19,1919 and with his friends he organised a defence movement all around Anatolia. They assembled congresses and The National Forces (Kuva-yi Milliye)had been established. In April 23, 1920 Turkish Grand Parliament was established in Ankara.

Turkish Nation, has made an Independence War and gloriously they have defeated all their enemies. The National Forces were commanded by a genius, Mustafa Kemal Pasha. After, the enemies were defeated, the Parliament decided to abolish the Ottoman Dynasty and to deport them from the Turkish territories.

DEPARTURE from ISTANBUL

Sultan Mehmed Vahiduddin requested to be transferred to another country from the Ally commander. In a great agony, he abandoned his homeland with an English ship named Malaya in the morning of October 17, 1922.

While, departing the palace, he did not take anything, even he left his own belongings. It is possible to say that, he left his country without a penny. First, he went to the Island of Malta and than to Hicaz. While he was in Hicaz he was offered to be the Caliph by Egypt and Saudi Arabia. He was promised, a wealthy and a luxurious life, in case he would accept to be the Caliph. However, Vahiduddin was a very proud man and he thought that, if he accepts this offer he will reject his predecessors.

After he stayed in Mecca for a while, he went to San Remo, Italy and he lived there until his death. The Italian King whom, Vahiduddin knew since his younger times, had offered him a palace in the city. But, the Sultan refused his offer kindly and clearly; �We are very grateful and thanksgiving to the royal King. I admire his kindness, manliness but, my name �Caliph of the Muslims� not allow me to accept this offer�

Indeed he had very hard days. He never thought about his situation, he asked all the visitors coming from Turkey, the condition of the country.

DEATH of the LAST SULTAN

Sultan Vahiduddin died because of a hearth attack in San Remo, in May 15, 1926. He was 65 years old when he died. He wished to be buried in his homeland. He knew that, this was impossible and he had chosen to be buried in Sam (Damascus) near the tomb of Selahaddin Eyyubi, and this was his last will.

Because of the debts, his creditors sequestrated his corpse. The President of Syria Ahmed Nami heard this and paid all his debts and brought his body to Syria. Even, the Sultan�s death body was so unfortunate, the garden of the tomb of Selahaddin Eyubi was full and there were no place for his tomb, so, the Present buried the Sultan in the Garden of the Sultan Selim Mosque.

MEHMED RESAD (Mohammed Resat)

Sultan Mehmed Resad was born in November 2, 1844 in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Abdulmecid and his mother is Gulcemal Kadın Efendi who was Caucasian originated. He spent his childhood near his father Sultan Abdulmecid and his education was taken care of him.

During the reign of his uncle Sultan Abdulaziz, Sultan Mehmet Resad lived an undisturbed life, but, in the period of his brother Sultan Abdulhamid II, he was imprisoned to the palace. As he was a crown prince he was always controlled. He spent this life of prison mostly in the Harem by reading books, especially poetry.

Sultan Mehmed Resad acceded the throne at the age of 65 by the support of the Committee of Union and Progress (Ittihat ve Terrakki Partisi). He was not neither included nor interested in the government administrations during Abdulhamid II�s period. During his sultanate, the important members of the the Committee of Union and Progress, Talat Pasha and Enver Pasha had administrated the empire.

The WAR of TRIPOLI

Italy was late for the race of colonisation, while busy with restoring the interior conflicts. But the other European countries were occupying overseas. The Ottoman Empire was loosing power, and Italy was intending to occupy Trablusgarb in Northern Africa. With favour of other European Countries; Italy sent an ultimatum to the Ottoman Empire and commanded them to leave Trablusgarb. However, the Ottoman government rejected to leave this region and Italy occupied Trablusgarp and Bingazi in 1911.

Mustafa Kemal and Enver Bey went to Trablus and organised the Ottoman forces there. But, Italy attacked the Ottomans from the Dardanels and occupied the Twelve Islands. The Balkan Wars were started and an agreement was singed with Italy. According to Usi Peace Treaty, Italy retained Trablusgarb and Bingazi. The Twelve Islands were given to Italy to hinder a Greek attack.

The 1^st BALKAN WAR

After Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece won their liberation, they declared war to the Ottoman Empire to establish a Slav union in the Balkans. Ottoman Empire fourth in many front lines and in many of them the Ottoman army was defeated. The Bulgarian advanced through Catalca, the Greeks invaded Salonica and Albania declared liberation.

The 2^nd BALKAN WAR

The Balkan States began to struggle, for the lands they took from the Ottoman Empire. Serbia and Greece declared war against Romania and Bulgaria. The Ottomans took advantige of this situation and declared war to Bulgaria, the Ottoman Army recapture historical city Edirne and advanced through the River Meric, but, the European Countries intervened and stopped the Ottomans. The Treaty of Istanbul was signed, the Turks retained Edirne and Kirklareli.

The WORLD WAR I

With the Revolution of Industry, in Europe rivalry for marketing had increased. The European countries began to search for new colonies and they established alliances among themselves. This rivalry caused the World War I and the Ottoman Empire entered the war with Germany. The war begun in July 28 1914 and ended in 1918, millions of people died, thousands of people crippled and the world entered a period of economical declined after this war.

The Ottoman Empire fought in many front lines. The Turkish troops defended the country most courageously, Gallipoli is one of the most significant defences in history. But, Sultan Mehmed Resad just prayed for his army and not involved in any struggle, at last he died of a hearth attack in 1918.

ABDULHAMID II (Abdul hamid II)

Sultan Abdulhamid II was born in Istanbul on the 21^st of September, 1842. His father is Sultan Abdul Medjid and his mother is Tir-i Mujgan Kadin Efendi. His mother is a Circassian originated. He lost his mother as a little child and he was grown by his step mother Pristu Kadın. He was weak child and used to fell sick often, by this reason, he was showed great interest especially during his father�s reign. He was very well educated and learnt to play piano besides his other courses.

Sultan Abdulhamid II lived a free life before he had married. After his marriage, he spent his all spare times with his family. He was inherited an empire which was about to collapse, by his political and social administrations, the empire was saved. He ruled the Ottomans for 33 years.

Abdulhamid was a religious, gracious and a generous man. He lived a life of a common person. During the Greece Campaign, it is informed him that, there was not enough money for a campaign. He spent his personnel wealth for the campaign.

He was also a brilliant carpenter, he used to make marvellous furniture and used to sell them gave that money to the poor. He was a really gracious man, he even forgave many people intended to him.

Sultan Abdul Hamid II had established universities, an Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Finance and Agriculture. Moreover, he openned a many primary schools, high schools, blind and dumb schools.

He had Sisli Etfal Hospital and Poorhouse built with his own money. He had the excellent drinking water called Hamidiye brought to Istanbul. He extended highways until the internal parts of Anatolia and had railways spread through Baghdad and Medina. He had rider trolley roads spread in capital cities.

1^stCONSTITUTION PERIOD

The notables of Committee of Union and Progress (Ittihak ve Terrakki Cemiyeti) dethroned Sultan Abdulaziz under cover of the disorder in the Balkans and acssesed Sultan Murad V to the throne. After a short period, Sultan Murad V had left the throne because of his illness and Sultan Abdulhamid II was crowned.

Due to the relations with Europe, an intellectual group was emerged in the Ottoman Empire. Committee of Union and Progress was the voice of this intellectual group. They believed that the salvation of the empire is in Constitution. Abdulhamid had promised that, he will declare the Constitution before he was accessed. He kept his promise and in December, 23 1876 he declared the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire �The Main Laws� (Kanun-i Esasi).

The Period Constitution was not last so long. Because Mithat Pasha (Grand Vizier) was intending to restrict the Sultan�s authority. Abdulhamid hold Mithat Pasha responsible of the death of Sultan Abdulaziz and dismissed him. Mithat Pasha was exiled. Because of the Ottoman-Russian War, the members of the parliament had began to struggle with each other and they had not been working properly, the Sultan decided to dismiss the parliament as well and he had put an end to the Period Constitution.

1877 - 1878 The OTTOMAN - RUSSIAN WAR (93 WAR)

With the Treaty of Paris, the tension between the Ottomans and the Russians had been yielded. But Russia was not pleased with this condition. The neutralisation of the Black Sea had hindered Russia�s advantages. Moreover, Russia had been spreading the Pan-Slavist movement in the Balkans and the Black Sea. As a result of Russian propaganda, revolts had been risen in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, and Bulgaria. The Europeans had assembled a Conference by fear of a new war, the Ottomans declared the Constitution while the Conference was continuing. In this conference, autonomy of Bosnia-Herzegovina was decided. They wanted the Ottoman Army to leave Serbia. The Ottoman Government rejected this conference, and the Europeans assembled another conference in London but they could not have been accepted the Ottomans these articles. They could not have hinder another war in the Balkans.

The War had begun, by the Russian attack. They passed through the River Tuna and came to the Ottoman lands. They also marched through the Eastern Anatolia and captured, Kars and Ardahan, but, in Erzurum they were defeated by Ghazi Ahmed Muhtar Pasha. In the Western parts of the Ottoman territory had been defended by the Ottoman Army led by legendary commander Ghazi Osman Pasha, unfortunately the war took so long and he could not have taken the aid from Istanbul and he could not have been resist anymore. The Russians captured Plevne and Sapka. By capturing this region they opened a passage through Edirne. When the Russian Army had began to marched through Anatolia, the Ottoman Government had asked for peace.

The DISSOLUTION of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE

After the Treaty of Berlin, the Ottoman Empire has entered the duration of dissolution. With the independence of the nations in the Balkans and the treaties signed after the Russian War the Empire began to loose power. Britain invaded Cyprus to hinder Russia�s policies about spreading through the Mediterranean Coast. The Ottoman Government temporarily had left Cyprus to Britain.

France has settled on Algeria and began to make plans on Tunisia. By the Treaty of Berlin France has gained the opportunity to dominate Tunisia. The Ottomans rejected French domination in Tunisia but they could not have been successful. After, French invasion in Tunisia, Britain got into action.

With the opening of the Suez Channel in 1839, Egypt�s geopolitical importance had increased. Britain and France became rivals on Egypt. Hidivi Ismail Pasha was failed to rule Egypt and economical problems had occurred, the European merchants began to attack the shops. These economical conflicts was threatening social peace there. Britain benefited from this chaotic condition and invaded Egypt (1882).

After, Greece became an independent state, the Greeks in the island of Kyrete had revolted in order to be occupied with it. The Ottomans stopped this revolt. But, Greece sent an army to the island and the Ottoman Government had declared war against Greece. The war was made in Teselya region and the Ottoman Army commanded by Ghazi Ethem Pasha defeated the Greeks in 1897. With reconciliation of the European countries a treaty was signed. With this treaty the island was given autonomy and in 1908 Greece invaded the island again. After the wars of Balkan, the Ottomans had completely lost the island.

The domination of Bosnia-Herzegovina was given temporally to Austria by the Treaty of Berlin. Austria invaded this region, after Sultan Abdulhamit declared the Second Constitution. There were internal conflicts going on and The Ottomans had to have accept the Austrian domination in Bosnia except the Yeni Pazar County 1908.

With the Treaty of Berlin, Bulgaria became a Princedom and divided into three regions. The East Roumelia and Macedonia were left to the Ottomans conditionally, and the condition was; a governmental restoration in these two regions. In the East Roumelia revolts had began in 1885 and Bulgaria declared that it has occupied the region. After the declaration of the Second Constitution, Bulgaria became independent and a Bulgarian Kingdom was established in 1908.

The DISSOLUTION of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE

31 MARCH EVENT

After the declaration of the Second Constitution some conflicts and struggles had been occurred between different groups. The opponents of the Constitution had co-operated with the hunter troops in Istanbul and revolted. The Action Army had arrived from Salonica and ended the revolt. This revolt was called as the 31 March Event, after this event Committee of Union and Progress gained power and Sultan Abdulhamid was dethroned, Sultan Mehmed Resad replaced him.

31 MARCH EVENT

MURAD V (Amurath V)

Sultan Murad V was born in 21.09.1840, in Istanbul. His father is Sultan Abdulmecid and his mother is Sevk-Efza Sultana who was Caucasian originated. Sultan Murad V was very well educated, he learnt French. He ordered books from France and read them most of the time. He was vey much interested in literature. He favoured famous writers of the time Ziya Pasha and Namik Kemal. He was very much influenced by Western culture, he played piano and he composed music in European style.

Sultan Murad V went to Europe with Sultan Abdulziz I. During this visit he admired Europe and he became friend with the Prince of Wales Edward (later he was crowned king as Edward VII). Sultan Murad V a very greedy and a very extravagant man.

Murad V, succeeded the throne following the dethroning of Sultan Abdulaziz in August 31 1904. However, he disappointed his supporters with his indifference towards the problems of the country. He reigned for 93 days. He dethroned on 31^st of August 1876, he lived in the palace for 28 years more and died on 29^th August 1904 and he was buried near his mother�s tomb in Yeni Mosque.

ABDULAZIZ (Abdul aziz)

Sultan Adulaziz I was born in 8^th of February in 1830, in Istanbul. He is the son of Sultan Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Mother Sultana. Abdulaziz had a auburn complexion. He acceded the throne after his brother Sultan Abdulmecid I�s death, in 25^th of June in 1861, he was 31 years old. Although he had reputation of his extravagancy he dressed up very simply. He was in his 9^th year when his father had passed away. His brother, Sultan Abdulmecid I had taken care of his education. He learnt French, he was fond of music and poetry, he was a composer himself. He was a talented painter as well. He designed ships for the navy. He was a brilliant archer, hunter and a wrestler. He was physically strong and muscular.

REVOLT of KARADAG

Karadag in the Balkans revolted against the Ottoman authority. Commander Omer Pasha repressed this revolt. In 8^th of September, 1862 Istanbul Protocol was signed with the insists of France and Russia. With this protocol Belgrade was retained by the Ottomans but its province was given to Serbia.

JOURNEY to EGYPT

Sultan Abdulaziz I decided to go to Egypt and departed from Istanbul in April 3, 1863 with a ship named �Feyz-i Cihan�. His nephews Murat, Abdulhamid, Mehmed Resad accompanied him. He was the first Ottoman Sultan went to Egypt since Sultan Selim I. The people of Egypt celebrated the arrival of sultan.

Abdulaziz renovated the regulations about Egypt, from then on the governors of Egypt were begun to be called as �Hidiv�.

ROMANIA CONFLICT

According to the Treaty of Paris, Wallachia and Moldovia had accepted the superiority of the Ottoman Empire but they were free in their internal administrations. In 1862, in Bucharest the councils of two federations were united and they established Romania. The Council voted �no confidence� for the Prince of Romania and the problems increased. In 1866, Charles was declared the Prince.

KYRETE CONFLICT

The problems in island of Kyrete were began in the 18^th century and continued in 19^th century. The Greek habitants of the island were revolted in the 19^th century. The Ottoman Empire tried to solve the problem, but all the military and administrative solutions were failed. The Greeks rejected the Ottoman authority in the island they desired to be annexed to Greece (02.09.1866).

Grand Vizier Mehmed Emin Ali Pasha was sent to Kyrete, and in 6^th of October in 1867, he declared a firman about the islands new administrative system. The civil administration was given to a governor appointed by the Sultan. For the military issues, the Ottoman commander was attended, two assistants were appointed to the governor, one is Muslim, the other is Christian. Except, the custom dues the island was immune from all the taxes. Both Turkish and Greek would be the legal language of the island. A mixed council would have been administrate agricultural, financial, commercial and industrial issues.

The LOSS of BELGRADE

Following the Treaty of Paris, Serb enmity had risen and they begun to fight with the Muslim habitants in Belgrade. Due to the agreement signed in 1862, the castle was under Ottoman rule, and the Serbs took the castles of Sokod and Owitza. Serbs were favoured by the Europeans and they wanted to take the castle of Belgrade. The Ottoman government was not ready for a war and gave the castle to Serbs in the 10^th of April, 1867.

The LOSS of BELGRADE

The REVOLTS BOSNIA - HERZEGOVINA and BULGARIA

In 1875, a revolt was begun in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the European countries interfered and they pressured the Ottoman Government to reform the administrative system of the region. He reform packet was designed but postponed with Bulgarian revolt. The Europeans supported the Bulgarian revolt but they could not have confined in each other and the conflicts remained unsolved.

The REFORMS of SULTAN ABDULAZIZ

Sultan Abdulaziz followed the reform movements begun in the period of Sultan Abdulmecid I. He organised a new administrative system for the Ottoman provinces. The Kadilik Kurumu (Judges of Islam) was put under control. On 1^st of April, 1868 Sura-yi Devlet (Council of State), in 1870, Divan-i Muhasebat (Exchequer and Audit Department) were established. Moreover, education, transportation and financial issues were organised.

Sultan Abdulaziz modernised the Navy too. In 1875, in the Ottoman Navy, there were 21 battleships and 173 non-armoured ships. The naval forces had been emerged by, 50.000.000 marines, 700 officers, 173 higher ranked officers, 11 vice-admirals, 6 cor-admirals, and 3 admirals. In this manner the Ottoman Navy was the third navy of the world after, English and French navies.

Sultan Abdulaziz I reigned for 14 years, 11 months and five days. In the first years of his sultanate he supported the constitutional government but later his ideas were changed and he used force against the constitutional government sympathisers. At first, he sympathised the reformist writers and poets as Sinasi, Namik Kemal and Ziya Pasha but in the following years he exiled Namik Kemal to Cyprus. The supporters of a constitutional government effected the public opinion, Mithat Pasha incited the university students and they protest against the Sultan 0n 10^th of May, 1876. In May, 30 Huseyin Avni Pasha and his soldiers raided the palace and dethroned the Sultan.

Four days after his dethroning, Sultan Abdulaziz had died. Although, it was said that he committed suicide by cutting his wrists, there are evidences about a possible murder (04.06.1876).

ARCHITECTURE

As all the Ottoman sultans, Abdulaziz was fond monumental architecture. He had had built Harbiye (the War Academy) before his journey to Egypt. Aksaray Valide Mosque, Sadabad Mosque, Aziziye Mosque, Palace of Beylerbeyi and Cıragan Mosque were built in his period.

ABDULMECID I (Abdul mecid I)

Sultan Abdülmecid was born in 25^th day of April, 1823. He is the son of Sultan Mahmud II and Bezm-i Alem Mother Sultana. Bezm-i Alem Sultana was Georgian originated. Abdulmecid, followed his fathers footsteps, he admired the western civilisation, and like his father he was a reformist. In his 17^th year, he succeeded his father Sultan Mahmud II, and, on the fourth month of his sovereign he declared the Reform Firman (Tanzimat Fermani), in Gulhane Park, Istanbul. He is known as the Sultan of the Reform Period. European historians and writers appreciate his reforms as well as his character.

Sultan Abdulmecid I was a fair and graicous sovereign, but, he used to have drinking alcohol since his youth. He died at the age of 39, because of tuberculosis. He was buried near the tomb of Sultan Selim III.

When Sultan Mahmud II was in his dead bed, Kavalali Mehmet Ali Pasha (Governor of Egypt) had revolted and defeated the Ottoman Forces in Nizip. Abdulmecid was acceded under such a chaotic condition. Egypt appeared as an European conflict with the Russian Navy�s arrival to Istanbul due to the Treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi.

England, Austria, Prussia and Russia assembled a conference to solve the problem between Kavalali and the Ottoman Empire. The European countries were against a strong administration in Egypt and they favoured the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of London was signed in 1840. Due to this treaty; Egypt remained in the Ottoman authority, but, Kavalali Pasha and his sons took the administration. Egypt was imposed to pay 80.000 gold annual tax. Syria, Adana, Kyrite were left to the Ottoman Empire.

Another conference assembled in 1841 after the treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi had fallen due. France, England, Prussia and Austria joined to this conference and, the domination of the Straits was given to the Ottoman Empire, also, other countries� battleships� transit in the periods of peace was forbidden. With this conference; France and England ensured their safety in the Straits but, the Ottoman authority was declined.

TANZIMAT FERMANI (The REFORM FERMAN)

The Ottoman reform movements led by Sultan Mahmud II and appeared in cultural and social lives of the Empire; had been strongly influenced by the European reforms.

Sultan Abdulmecid appreciated his fathers� reformist character and as soon as he came to throne he designed a widespread reform movement. He appointed Mustafa Resit Pasha (Ottoman Ambassador in London) as the Minister of International Relations. Mustafa Resit Pasha was very well educated and he was highly aware of the European politics.

Mustafa Resit Pasha represented the Reform Firman in the Gulhane Park, to the representatives of the European countries, to the statesman and to public (08.11.1839). According to the firman;

The Ottoman Government had guaranteed the safety of the lives and the properties of both Muslim and Non-Muslim subjects.
The taxes would have been regulated according to the annual incomes.
The military services of the Ottoman subjects were re-organised.
Executions without a court decision were strictly forbidden.
Everybody has gained a right for inheritance.
Bribery was forbidden.
Law was regarded as the superior of all powers.

The Reform Firman can be considered as the draft of first Ottoman Constitution. Even the Sultan had accepted a power higher than himself. The minorities were given rights to hinder the European interference in internal issues, but they have found a chance to involve more in the Empire�s domestic administrations.

The WAR of CRIMEA

The Reform Firman did not effected the Empire as planned but it became very effective on Europe. Meanwhile, Russia was advancing through the River Tuna and intending to end the Ottoman domination in the Balkans. Besides, Russia was planning to divide these lands among the Europeans and desiring to dominate all the Orthodox people in the region. But, England and France rejected Russia�s plan and favoured the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman forces supported by England and France defeated the Russian Army in 1855 and invaded Sivastopol.

Char Nikolai I, committed suicide after this withdrawal and Alexander II succeeded him. In 1886, the Treaty of Paris was signed and the Ottoman Empire was considered as an European country and put under the protection of the other European countries. The Black Sea was neutralised and both Russia and the Ottoman Empire left the lands they were invaded.

ISLAHAT FERMANI (The IMPROVMENT FERMAN)

The Improvement Firman was not only designed to organise the interior issues of the Ottoman Empire but also to hinder European and Russian interference in the internal regulations.

It was declared just before the Paris Conference, in Istanbul to the foreign representatives. Important articles of the firman as below;

Religious freedom will be obtained.
New councils will be established in the Patriarchate and the decisions of these councils will be approved by the Ottoman Government.
All the subjects will be equal in the government offices, schools and in military service.
The taxes will be equally imposed.
Foreigners will be free to buy estates in the Ottoman territories.

Sultan Abdulmecid I had passed away in his 38^th year. He was the first Ottoman Sultan who had an European education. He tried to reform and restore all the regulations of the empire. He gave permission to the newspapers and to the birth of new ideas.

ARCHITECTURE

In Abdulmecid I�s period; Kucuk Mecidiye Camii (Small Mecidiye Mosque) in Besiktas, Fatih Hirka-i Serif Mosque, Dolmabahce Mosque, Ortakoy Mosque, Kucuksu Palace, and Mecidiye Palace were built.

MAHMUD II (Mahmoud II)

Sultan Mahmoud II was born in Istanbul in July 20, 1785. His father was Sultan Abdulhamid I and his mother was Naksidil Sultana.

Mahmoud came to the throne in 1808, in his twenty fourth year. While heir presumptive, he had been carefully instructed by Sultan Selim III in those measures of reform necessary to save the empire from dissolution. Mahmoud was qualified by an extraordinary energy. As an intellectual and intelligent young individual he followed closely the reforms in Europe. He especially, reformed the judicial system. He restored and modified many regulations.

He died from tuberculosis in July, 1 1839, at the age of 54. His funeral was so crowded, and he was buried in Divan Yolu.

His sons : Abdulmecid, Abdulaziz, four shahzadahs called Ahmed, Bayezid, Abdulhamit, Soliman, Mohamed, Murad, Nizameddin, Mehmed Abdullah, Othman.

His Daughters: Emine Sultan, Hamide Sultan, Hayriye Sultan, Shah Sultan, Salihe Sultan, Ayse Sultan, Atike Sultan, Fatma Sultan, Munire Sultan, Fatma Sultan, Fihrimah Sultan, Adile Sultan.

OTTOMAN - RUSSO RELATIONS

When Mahmoud has ascended the Ottoman-Russian War was continuing. Due to the treaty signed with Britain in 1809, the war continued until French-Russian conflicts had been occurred.

In September 28, 1812 a peace treaty was signed between The Ottoman Empire and Russia in Bucharest. With this treaty Russia left Wallachia and Moldavia, they just took the region of Baserabia. Serbia became an autonomy. Bosnia and Wallachia were freed from taxes for two years. River Tuna was given both Russia and the Ottoman Empire and it was regarded as the border line of two countries.

The REVOLT of SERBIA

Serbia was invaded by Mehmet the conqueror, and the Serbs were pleasantly living as Ottoman subjects. Incitements of Russia and Austria, the decline of the Ottoman authority in the 17^th century, ill-treatment of the Yeniceris (Ottoman Soldiers) and the nationalist movements following the French Revolution caused the Revolt of Serbia. The revolt was started in 1804 and led by George Petrowitsch (commonly known as Dark George). The Ottoman Army was in war with Russia and the revolt had continued until 1812. With the Treaty of Bucharest some rights were given to Serbs.

As the Serbs adhered to the ritual of the Greek Church, the sympathies of Russia favoured their national movement; and finally Serbia was constituted a sovereign state (1828-29 The Treaty of Edirne), electing its own prince and managing its internal affairs but acknowledging the supremacy of the sultan, and submitting its external relations to his control. The first prince was Milosch Obrenovitch, the successful leader of the second rebellion.

The NAVARINO EVENT

The southern part of European Turkey, comprehending the Morea and Greece in general, imitated the example of Serbia. Moreover, The French Revolution had an important influence on the Ottoman subjects. The Greeks received the sympathy of the whole Europe and Russia.

The Hellenic Revolution began, as revolutions often begin with a secret society. An association of Greeks, styling itself Hetaria Philike, or Society of Friends, had for some years existed in the dominions of Russia and Austria. Their aim was liberation of their country and the rebirth of the Byzantine Empire.

The first insurrectionary movement was made in the Danubian provinces in March, 1821, by Alexander Ipsalanti, a Greek military officer in the Russian service, but the attempt was speedily repressed.

The second rebellion was made in Morea, this was a long and sanguinary struggle. Mehmed Ali Pasha of Kavala had been promised to be the governor of the region and he was sent to the region to repress the riot. He sent an army and a powerful navy, commanded by his own son Ibrahim Pasha toward the Greeks and they had defeated the rebels. The withdrawal of the Greek liberation movement, depressed the European countries. Morea and the island of Kyrete were given to Mehmet Ali Pasha, this was out of Britain�s benefits, as Britain was planning to establish a puppet Greek State in that strategical region.

England, Russia and France made a treaty among themselves and decided to give liberation to Greece. Sultan Mahmoud rejected this and the Ottoman Navy anchored to the Navarino Harbour in Morea was burnt by them.

The TREATY of EDIRNE

After, the Ottoman Navy was burnt by the Event of Navarino Sultan Mahmoud II requested war compensation. Russia rejected this request and declared war against the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, Sultan Mahmoud had abolished Yeniceris (Ottoman Army) and established a new army called �Asakiri Mansuri Muhammediye�. This army was not ready to fight against the strong Russian Army, as its establishment has not been completed. Russia invaded Wallacia and Moldovia and marched through the River Tuna. In the west, they passed through the Balkans and reached Edirne, in the east, they came to Erzurum. By the inevitable, advance of the Russian Army, the Ottoman Government surrendered and a treaty was signed between two countries. According to this treaty, Greece had gained liberty, Wallachia, Moldovia and Serbia gained many privileges. Russia had left the regions, it had invaded. The Ottoman government gave permission to the Russian trading ships for their transits through the straits. Moreover, the Ottoman Government had accepted to pay Russia war compensation.

The REVOLT of MEHMED ALI PASHA CAVALLA

Another storm speedily gathered upon the Ottoman Empire excited by Mehmet Ali, the pasha of Egypt. He was born in Cavalla, the Ancient Neapolis, in Roumelia and he was commonly called as Mehmet Ali Pasha of Cavalla. This powerful vassal had held the government of that country through the entire reign, and had hitherto served the Sultan Mahmoud faithfully, rendering him important assistance during the contest with Greeks. His career was remarkable for its almost uniform success, till ambition brought him into collision with his liege lord and the European powers.

French invasion of Egypt led him to the scene of his future distinction. He volunteered to defend Egypt from Napoleon�s invasion and his successful defend led him to be the governor Pasha of the region. He abolished the Kolemen State in Egypt, he established a very powerful army and a navy by the assistance of French he reformed the Egyptian agriculture by opening water channels.

The Pasha, assisted Sultan Mahmoud in the revolt of Morea and he wanted to be the Governor of Morea and Kyrete. Although he repressed the revolt of Morea, he did not send his army during the Ottoman-Russian War. He requested to be the governor of Syria and due to the Sultan�s rejection of his request, he invaded Syria. He passed the Taurus Mountains and defeated the Ottoman Army in Konya and Adana (Mediterranean Region)

After these victories, it was nearly impossible to stop him through Istanbul. Sultan Mahmoud, asked for Russian co-operation, but, Britain and France with the panic of the possibility of an Ottoman-Russian agreement, convinced Mehmet Ali Pasha to sign an agreement with the Ottoman Government. This agreement was signed in Kutahya and Pasha was appointed to be the Governor of Morea, Kyrete and Syria. Beside, his son Ibrahim Pasha became the governor of Cidde and Adana.

A strong ruler in Egypt was out of Britain�s benefits as Mehmet Ali Pasha was hindering British Trade in the region. The British had decided to dismiss the Pasha and provoke Sultan Mahmoud against him. The Ottoman navy had attacted Pasha�s forces but they were defeated and the Ottoman Admiral (Kaptan-ı Derya) gave the navy to the Pasha (1839). By this domestic war, the Ottoman Navy was completely lost, the army was seriously injured. During these events, Sultan Mahmoud had passed away and his son Abdulmejid was crowned.

The STRAITS

Sultan Mahmoud II was signed a agreement with Russia in 1833, as he co-ordinated with them during the revolt of Mehmet Ali Pasha; this agreement was called Hunkar Iskelesi Agreement (The Sultan�s Stairs);

1. Both the Ottoman Empire and Russia will co-ordinate each other in case of a war.

2. In danger of a war, Russia will sent army to the Ottoman Empire.

3. If an attack occurs against Russia, the Ottoman Empire will close the Straits and hinder an attack from the Straits.

4. This agreement will be valid for eight years.

The REFORMS

As Sultan Mahmoud II was carefully instructed by Sultan Selim III, he was strongly influenced by him. Mahmoud was aware of the fact that the Ottoman Empire needed a widespread reformation. From the first years of his reign Mahmoud attended tremendous reverses in military and administrative systems. In October, 14, 1808 he established a new military organisation called Sekban-i Cedid (New Soldiers), but, the Yeniceris started a riot and protested this new organisation as their privileges were retrenching. The Sultan had abolished the Sekban-i Cedid.

The Sultan had established another military force called Eskinci, but the Yeniceris had revolted again, and, the Sultan had abolished the Yeniceris in June 15, 1826 and established completely new military force called Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye(Restored form of the Yeniceris) this event is called as the Vaka-i Hayriye (The Blessing Event).

Sultan Mahmoud was believing that the governors and the administrators around the country should support the reforms and Grand Vizier Mustafa Pasha signed an agreement with all the officers, this agreement was called Sened-i Ittifak (Proof of Agreement). According to Sened-i Ittifak, the rights of the governors legalised by the Sultan, but all the governors had accepted Sultan�s supremacy and authority and they promised to apply all the reforms in their regions. However, it was impossible for the Sultan to share his authority with other administrators. After a while the Sultan had taken back the administrators privileges back and tried to rule the country from the centre.

Sultan Mahmoud II was aware of the fact that, military reforms were not enough to save the Empire, he abolished the Divan and established the ministries. In March 30, 1836 he modified the term Grand Vizier to �Prime Minister�.

He made many social reforms too. He issued a firman in March 3 1829, about clothing, pantaloons and frockcoats were substituted and the �fez� took place of the turbans. The first newspaper was pressed in November 1, 1839 and called Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Events). New schools and universities were established instead of the old fashioned medreses (Ottoman Schools). Many students were sent to Europe for education.

The first postal service was established. In order to help the Turkish merchants and support their rivalry with the Europeans, duty taxes were decreased. First, census was made, and according to this census it is known that there were 2.500.000 male subjects in Anatolia and 1.500.000 male subject in Roumelia.

New regulations about travelling were applied. For domestic travels people had to take �travel permission�, the one�s travelling abroad should had have passports.

ARCHITECTURE

Architecture received special attention from Sultan Mahmoud II. He erected spacious barracks and arsenals beyond the limits of the capital, numerous mosques in the city, and many residences for himself on the shores of Bosphorus. Some of them are; Suleymaniye Mosque in Rhodes, Bıyıkoglu Mahmud Mosque in Izmir, Cevri Kalfa School (Cevri Kalfa saved the Sultan�s life once, therefore his name was given to this school), Nusretiye Mosque, Istanbul KocaMustafa Pasha Mosque, Stone Barracks.

Sultan Mahmud also had had all the grand mosques repaired and restored. He was a poet and composer, he also was a brilliant calligrapher.

OTTOMAN SULTAN AND PASHAS

Thursday, January 10, 2008

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ABDULHAMID II (Abdul hamid II)

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ABDULMECID I (Abdul mecid I)

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